{"id":752,"date":"2023-03-10T18:44:44","date_gmt":"2023-03-10T18:44:44","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/introductiontopsychology\/?post_type=chapter&#038;p=752"},"modified":"2026-01-15T15:56:12","modified_gmt":"2026-01-15T15:56:12","slug":"metabolism-and-obesity","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/introductiontopsychology\/chapter\/metabolism-and-obesity\/","title":{"raw":"Hunger and Eating: Learn It 2\u2014Obesity","rendered":"Hunger and Eating: Learn It 2\u2014Obesity"},"content":{"raw":"<section data-depth=\"1\">\r\n<h2 class=\"text-text-100 mt-3 -mb-1 text-[1.125rem] font-bold\">Defining and Measuring Obesity<\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body break-words whitespace-normal leading-[1.7]\">When someone weighs significantly more than what is considered healthy for their height, medical professionals classify them as <strong>overweight<\/strong> or <strong>obese<\/strong>. Historically, this has been assessed using the <strong>body mass index (BMI)<\/strong>.<\/p>\r\n<section class=\"textbox keyTakeaway\">\r\n<h3>body mass index (BMI)<\/h3>\r\n<p><strong>BMI<\/strong> is calculated by dividing an individual's weight in kilograms by their height in meters squared. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC):<\/p>\r\n<div class=\"overflow-x-auto w-full px-2 mb-6\">\r\n<table class=\"min-w-full border-collapse text-sm leading-[1.7] whitespace-normal\" style=\"width: 73.945%; height: 114px;\">\r\n<thead class=\"text-left\">\r\n<tr>\r\n<th class=\"text-text-100 border-b-0.5 border-border-300\/60 py-2 pr-4 align-top font-bold\">Classification<\/th>\r\n<th class=\"text-text-100 border-b-0.5 border-border-300\/60 py-2 pr-4 align-top font-bold\">BMI Range<\/th>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/thead>\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td class=\"border-b-0.5 border-border-300\/30 py-2 pr-4 align-top\">Normal weight<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"border-b-0.5 border-border-300\/30 py-2 pr-4 align-top\">18.5\u201324.9<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td class=\"border-b-0.5 border-border-300\/30 py-2 pr-4 align-top\">Overweight<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"border-b-0.5 border-border-300\/30 py-2 pr-4 align-top\">25\u201329.9<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td class=\"border-b-0.5 border-border-300\/30 py-2 pr-4 align-top\">Obese<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"border-b-0.5 border-border-300\/30 py-2 pr-4 align-top\">30 or higher<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td class=\"border-b-0.5 border-border-300\/30 py-2 pr-4 align-top\">Severely obese<\/td>\r\n<td class=\"border-b-0.5 border-border-300\/30 py-2 pr-4 align-top\">40 or higher<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<\/div>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_5308\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"562\"]<img class=\"wp-image-5308\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/855\/2015\/02\/27034211\/CNX_Psych_10_02_Bodymass_n1.jpg\" alt=\"A BMI chart showing weight and height as it corresponds with being underweight, in the normal range, overweight, or obese. For example, someone who is 5 foot 7 and under 120 lbs would be underweight, in the normal range through 155 lbs, overweight until 180 lbs, and obese beyond that.\" width=\"562\" height=\"459\" \/> <strong>Figure 1<\/strong>. This chart is used to correlate weight and height with body mass index.[\/caption]\r\n<\/section>\r\n<section class=\"textbox proTip\">\r\n<h3 class=\"text-text-100 mt-2 -mb-1 text-base font-bold\">Limitations of BMI<\/h3>\r\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body break-words whitespace-normal leading-[1.7]\">While BMI remains widely used for population-level studies and initial screening, its value as an individual assessment tool has significant limitations. In 2023, the American Medical Association (AMA) released a policy statement acknowledging that BMI is \"an imperfect way to measure body fat\" and has \"historical harm\" due to being based primarily on data from non-Hispanic white populations.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body break-words whitespace-normal leading-[1.7]\">Key limitations include:<\/p>\r\n<ul class=\"[li_&amp;]:mb-0 [li_&amp;]:mt-1 [li_&amp;]:gap-1 [&amp;:not(:last-child)_ul]:pb-1 [&amp;:not(:last-child)_ol]:pb-1 list-disc flex flex-col gap-1 pl-8 mb-3\">\r\n\t<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words pl-2\">Doesn't distinguish fat from muscle \u2014 A muscular athlete may have a \"obese\" BMI despite low body fat<\/li>\r\n\t<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words pl-2\">Doesn't account for fat distribution \u2014 Where fat is stored matters; visceral fat (around organs) poses greater health risks than subcutaneous fat<\/li>\r\n\t<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words pl-2\">Varies across populations \u2014 BMI thresholds developed for European populations may misclassify risk in Asian, Black, and other populations<\/li>\r\n\t<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words pl-2\">Ignores age and sex differences \u2014 Body composition changes with age and differs between sexes<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body break-words whitespace-normal leading-[1.7]\">The AMA now recommends that BMI be used <strong>in conjunction with other measures<\/strong>, such as:<\/p>\r\n<ul class=\"[li_&amp;]:mb-0 [li_&amp;]:mt-1 [li_&amp;]:gap-1 [&amp;:not(:last-child)_ul]:pb-1 [&amp;:not(:last-child)_ol]:pb-1 list-disc flex flex-col gap-1 pl-8 mb-3\">\r\n\t<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words pl-2\">Waist circumference \u2014 A better predictor of cardiometabolic risk; risk increases at 40+ inches for men and 35+ inches for women<\/li>\r\n\t<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words pl-2\">Waist-to-height ratio \u2014 Some research suggests keeping waist circumference below half your height<\/li>\r\n\t<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words pl-2\">Body composition assessment \u2014 When available, measures of actual fat mass and distribution<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/section>\r\n<h2 class=\"text-text-100 mt-3 -mb-1 text-[1.125rem] font-bold\">Health Consequences of Obesity<\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body break-words whitespace-normal leading-[1.7]\">Being significantly overweight or obese increases the risk for numerous health conditions, including:<\/p>\r\n<ul class=\"[li_&amp;]:mb-0 [li_&amp;]:mt-1 [li_&amp;]:gap-1 [&amp;:not(:last-child)_ul]:pb-1 [&amp;:not(:last-child)_ol]:pb-1 list-disc flex flex-col gap-1 pl-8 mb-3\">\r\n\t<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words pl-2\">Cardiovascular disease and stroke<\/li>\r\n\t<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words pl-2\">Type 2 diabetes<\/li>\r\n\t<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words pl-2\">Liver disease<\/li>\r\n\t<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words pl-2\">Sleep apnea<\/li>\r\n\t<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words pl-2\">Certain cancers (colon, breast, and others)<\/li>\r\n\t<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words pl-2\">Infertility<\/li>\r\n\t<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words pl-2\">Arthritis and joint problems<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body break-words whitespace-normal leading-[1.7]\">According to the CDC, approximately <strong>40% of U.S. adults<\/strong> have obesity, and nearly <strong>10% have severe obesity<\/strong>. This represents a significant public health concern, as obesity-related conditions contribute to millions of deaths globally each year.<\/p>\r\n<h3>Causes of Obesity<\/h3>\r\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body break-words whitespace-normal leading-[1.7]\">Obesity results from a complex interaction of factors:<\/p>\r\n<h4 class=\"text-text-100 mt-2 -mb-1 text-base font-bold\">Biological Factors<\/h4>\r\n<ul class=\"[li_&amp;]:mb-0 [li_&amp;]:mt-1 [li_&amp;]:gap-1 [&amp;:not(:last-child)_ul]:pb-1 [&amp;:not(:last-child)_ol]:pb-1 list-disc flex flex-col gap-1 pl-8 mb-3\">\r\n\t<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words pl-2\">Genetics \u2014 Twin studies show strong heritability of body weight; hundreds of genes influence appetite, metabolism, and fat storage<\/li>\r\n\t<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words pl-2\">Hormonal regulation \u2014 As discussed in the previous section, hormones like leptin, ghrelin, and GLP-1 powerfully regulate hunger and satiety<\/li>\r\n\t<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words pl-2\">Metabolic differences \u2014 Individual variation in metabolic rate affects how efficiently the body uses energy<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h4 class=\"text-text-100 mt-2 -mb-1 text-base font-bold\">Environmental Factors<\/h4>\r\n<ul class=\"[li_&amp;]:mb-0 [li_&amp;]:mt-1 [li_&amp;]:gap-1 [&amp;:not(:last-child)_ul]:pb-1 [&amp;:not(:last-child)_ol]:pb-1 list-disc flex flex-col gap-1 pl-8 mb-3\">\r\n\t<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words pl-2\">Food environment \u2014 Availability of inexpensive, high-calorie, highly palatable foods<\/li>\r\n\t<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words pl-2\">Portion sizes \u2014 Restaurant and packaged food portions have increased dramatically over decades<\/li>\r\n\t<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words pl-2\">Physical activity \u2014 Sedentary lifestyles, mechanized transportation, and urban design limit activity<\/li>\r\n\t<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words pl-2\">Sleep and stress \u2014 Both affect hormones that regulate appetite and metabolism<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h4 class=\"text-text-100 mt-2 -mb-1 text-base font-bold\">Socioeconomic Factors<\/h4>\r\n<ul class=\"[li_&amp;]:mb-0 [li_&amp;]:mt-1 [li_&amp;]:gap-1 [&amp;:not(:last-child)_ul]:pb-1 [&amp;:not(:last-child)_ol]:pb-1 list-disc flex flex-col gap-1 pl-8 mb-3\">\r\n\t<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words pl-2\">Income and education \u2014 Obesity rates are higher in lower-income populations<\/li>\r\n\t<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words pl-2\">Food access \u2014 \"Food deserts\" in some neighborhoods limit access to fresh, healthy foods<\/li>\r\n\t<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words pl-2\">Time constraints \u2014 Working multiple jobs or long hours limits time for cooking and exercise<\/li>\r\n\t<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words pl-2\">Neighborhood safety \u2014 Unsafe neighborhoods discourage outdoor physical activity<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body break-words whitespace-normal leading-[1.7]\">Understanding obesity as resulting from this complex web of factors\u2014rather than simply \"poor choices\"\u2014is essential for developing effective interventions and reducing stigma.<\/p>\r\n<\/section>\r\n<section data-depth=\"1\">\r\n<h2>Weight Loss\u00a0Approaches<\/h2>\r\n<h3 class=\"text-text-100 mt-2 -mb-1 text-base font-bold\">Lifestyle Interventions<\/h3>\r\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body break-words whitespace-normal leading-[1.7]\">The foundation of obesity treatment remains <strong>diet and exercise<\/strong>. However, research shows that lifestyle interventions alone produce modest results\u2014typically 5-10% weight loss\u2014and most people regain weight over time. This isn't due to lack of willpower; as discussed earlier, powerful biological mechanisms resist sustained weight loss.<\/p>\r\n<h3 class=\"text-text-100 mt-2 -mb-1 text-base font-bold\">Pharmacological Treatment: GLP-1 Medications<\/h3>\r\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body break-words whitespace-normal leading-[1.7]\">A revolution in obesity treatment began with the approval of <strong>GLP-1 receptor agonist medications<\/strong> for weight management. These include:<\/p>\r\n<ul class=\"[li_&amp;]:mb-0 [li_&amp;]:mt-1 [li_&amp;]:gap-1 [&amp;:not(:last-child)_ul]:pb-1 [&amp;:not(:last-child)_ol]:pb-1 list-disc flex flex-col gap-1 pl-8 mb-3\">\r\n\t<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words pl-2\">Semaglutide (Wegovy, Ozempic)<\/li>\r\n\t<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words pl-2\">Tirzepatide (Zepbound, Mounjaro) \u2014 a dual GLP-1\/GIP agonist<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body break-words whitespace-normal leading-[1.7]\">These medications work by mimicking the satiety hormone GLP-1, reducing hunger signals in the brain and slowing gastric emptying. Clinical trials showed impressive results:<\/p>\r\n<ul class=\"[li_&amp;]:mb-0 [li_&amp;]:mt-1 [li_&amp;]:gap-1 [&amp;:not(:last-child)_ul]:pb-1 [&amp;:not(:last-child)_ol]:pb-1 list-disc flex flex-col gap-1 pl-8 mb-3\">\r\n\t<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words pl-2\"><strong>Semaglutide:<\/strong> ~15-17% total body weight loss (e.g., ~40 pounds for someone starting at 250 lbs)<\/li>\r\n\t<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words pl-2\"><strong>Tirzepatide:<\/strong> ~20-22% total body weight loss (e.g., ~50 pounds for someone starting at 250 lbs)<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body break-words whitespace-normal leading-[1.7]\">These results far exceed what most people achieve through diet and exercise alone (typically 5-10%). However, real-world results often differ significantly from clinical trials. A 2025 study of over 50,000 patients found that those prescribed GLP-1 medications lost an average of only 12 pounds over two years\u2014far less than the 40-50+ pounds seen in trials.[footnote]Brown, A., Chhabra, K. R., Parikh, M. S., &amp; NYU Langone Health. (2025, June 17). Comparative effectiveness of semaglutide and tirzepatide vs. bariatric surgery [Conference presentation]. American Society for Metabolic and Bariatric Surgery Annual Scientific Meeting, Washington, DC, United States.[\/footnote]<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body break-words whitespace-normal leading-[1.7]\"><strong>Key considerations:<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<ul class=\"[li_&amp;]:mb-0 [li_&amp;]:mt-1 [li_&amp;]:gap-1 [&amp;:not(:last-child)_ul]:pb-1 [&amp;:not(:last-child)_ol]:pb-1 list-disc flex flex-col gap-1 pl-8 mb-3\">\r\n\t<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words pl-2\">Weight typically returns when medication is stopped<\/li>\r\n\t<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words pl-2\">Long-term effects are still being studied<\/li>\r\n\t<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words pl-2\">Cost and insurance coverage remain barriers for many patients<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h3 class=\"text-text-100 mt-2 -mb-1 text-base font-bold\">Bariatric Surgery<\/h3>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"354\"]<img class=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/902\/2015\/02\/23224939\/CNX_Psych_10_02_Bariatric.jpg\" alt=\"An illustration depicts a gastric band wrapped around the top portion of a stomach. A bulging area directly above the gastric band is labeled \u201cSmall stomach pouch.\u201d The area directly below the stomach is labeled \u201cDuodenum.\u201d Down-facing arrows indicate the direction in which digested food travels from the esophagus at the top, down through the stomach, and into the duodenum.\" width=\"354\" height=\"290\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/> <strong>Figure 2<\/strong>. Gastric banding surgery creates a small pouch of stomach, reducing the size of the stomach that can be used for digestion.[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body break-words whitespace-normal leading-[1.7]\"><strong>Bariatric surgery<\/strong> involves modifying the gastrointestinal system to reduce food intake and\/or nutrient absorption. Common procedures include:<\/p>\r\n<ul class=\"[li_&amp;]:mb-0 [li_&amp;]:mt-1 [li_&amp;]:gap-1 [&amp;:not(:last-child)_ul]:pb-1 [&amp;:not(:last-child)_ol]:pb-1 list-disc flex flex-col gap-1 pl-8 mb-3\">\r\n\t<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words pl-2\">Sleeve gastrectomy \u2014 Removes approximately 80% of the stomach<\/li>\r\n\t<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words pl-2\">Gastric bypass (Roux-en-Y) \u2014 Creates a small stomach pouch and bypasses part of the small intestine<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body break-words whitespace-normal leading-[1.7]\">Bariatric surgery remains the most effective treatment for severe obesity, with patients typically losing 25-30% of body weight and maintaining significant weight loss for 10+ years. Recent studies comparing surgery to GLP-1 medications found surgery produced approximately five times more weight loss at two years (Gloy et al., 2013; ASMBS, 2025).<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body break-words whitespace-normal leading-[1.7]\">Surgery is typically recommended when:<\/p>\r\n<ul class=\"[li_&amp;]:mb-0 [li_&amp;]:mt-1 [li_&amp;]:gap-1 [&amp;:not(:last-child)_ul]:pb-1 [&amp;:not(:last-child)_ol]:pb-1 list-disc flex flex-col gap-1 pl-8 mb-3\">\r\n\t<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words pl-2\">BMI is 40 or higher, OR<\/li>\r\n\t<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words pl-2\">BMI is 35 or higher with obesity-related health conditions, OR<\/li>\r\n\t<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words pl-2\">BMI is 30 or higher with inadequate response to other treatments<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h3 class=\"text-text-100 mt-2 -mb-1 text-base font-bold\">Combining Approaches<\/h3>\r\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body break-words whitespace-normal leading-[1.7]\">Increasingly, treatment involves <strong>combining approaches<\/strong>\u2014lifestyle changes plus medication, or medication before or after surgery. The goal is matching the right intervention to each individual's needs and circumstances.<\/p>\r\n<section class=\"textbox connectIt\">\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"202\"]<img class=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/902\/2015\/02\/23224941\/CNX_Psych_10_02_Obesity.jpg\" alt=\"A painting shows Eugenia Mart\u00ednez Vallejo.\" width=\"202\" height=\"315\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/> <strong>Figure 3<\/strong>. Eugenia Mart\u00ednez Vallejo, depicted in this 1680 painting, may have had Prader-Willi syndrome. At just eight years old, she weighed approximately 120 pounds, and she was nicknamed \u201cLa Monstrua\u201d (the monster).[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body break-words whitespace-normal leading-[1.7]\"><strong>Prader-Willi Syndrome (PWS)<\/strong> is a genetic disorder that illustrates the powerful biological control of hunger. PWS results in:<\/p>\r\n<ul class=\"[li_&amp;]:mb-0 [li_&amp;]:mt-1 [li_&amp;]:gap-1 [&amp;:not(:last-child)_ul]:pb-1 [&amp;:not(:last-child)_ol]:pb-1 list-disc flex flex-col gap-1 pl-8 mb-3\">\r\n\t<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words pl-2\">Persistent, intense feelings of hunger<\/li>\r\n\t<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words pl-2\">Reduced metabolic rate<\/li>\r\n\t<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words pl-2\">Cognitive and emotional difficulties<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body break-words whitespace-normal leading-[1.7]\">Children with PWS often require 24-hour supervision to prevent excessive eating. The syndrome is currently the leading genetic cause of morbid obesity in children.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body break-words whitespace-normal leading-[1.7]\"><em>Figure 3. Eugenia Mart\u00ednez Vallejo, depicted in this 1680 painting, may have had Prader-Willi syndrome. At just eight years old, she weighed approximately 120 pounds.<\/em><\/p>\r\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body break-words whitespace-normal leading-[1.7]\">PWS demonstrates that hunger is not simply a matter of willpower\u2014it is controlled by biological systems that, when disrupted, can produce overwhelming drive to eat. Research shows that individuals with PWS have <strong>hypothalamic abnormalities<\/strong>, consistent with the hypothalamus's central role in regulating hunger.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body break-words whitespace-normal leading-[1.7]\">While there is no cure for PWS, careful weight management can significantly increase life expectancy. Advances in growth hormone treatment and other interventions continue to improve quality of life for affected individuals (Cassidy &amp; Driscoll, 2009).<\/p>\r\n<\/section>\r\n<\/section>\r\n<section data-depth=\"1\">\r\n<section class=\"textbox tryIt\">[ohm2_question height=\"500\"]4408[\/ohm2_question]<\/section>\r\n<section><\/section>\r\n<\/section>","rendered":"<section data-depth=\"1\">\n<h2 class=\"text-text-100 mt-3 -mb-1 text-[1.125rem] font-bold\">Defining and Measuring Obesity<\/h2>\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body break-words whitespace-normal leading-[1.7]\">When someone weighs significantly more than what is considered healthy for their height, medical professionals classify them as <strong>overweight<\/strong> or <strong>obese<\/strong>. Historically, this has been assessed using the <strong>body mass index (BMI)<\/strong>.<\/p>\n<section class=\"textbox keyTakeaway\">\n<h3>body mass index (BMI)<\/h3>\n<p><strong>BMI<\/strong> is calculated by dividing an individual&#8217;s weight in kilograms by their height in meters squared. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC):<\/p>\n<div class=\"overflow-x-auto w-full px-2 mb-6\">\n<table class=\"min-w-full border-collapse text-sm leading-[1.7] whitespace-normal\" style=\"width: 73.945%; height: 114px;\">\n<thead class=\"text-left\">\n<tr>\n<th class=\"text-text-100 border-b-0.5 border-border-300\/60 py-2 pr-4 align-top font-bold\">Classification<\/th>\n<th class=\"text-text-100 border-b-0.5 border-border-300\/60 py-2 pr-4 align-top font-bold\">BMI Range<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td class=\"border-b-0.5 border-border-300\/30 py-2 pr-4 align-top\">Normal weight<\/td>\n<td class=\"border-b-0.5 border-border-300\/30 py-2 pr-4 align-top\">18.5\u201324.9<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td class=\"border-b-0.5 border-border-300\/30 py-2 pr-4 align-top\">Overweight<\/td>\n<td class=\"border-b-0.5 border-border-300\/30 py-2 pr-4 align-top\">25\u201329.9<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td class=\"border-b-0.5 border-border-300\/30 py-2 pr-4 align-top\">Obese<\/td>\n<td class=\"border-b-0.5 border-border-300\/30 py-2 pr-4 align-top\">30 or higher<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td class=\"border-b-0.5 border-border-300\/30 py-2 pr-4 align-top\">Severely obese<\/td>\n<td class=\"border-b-0.5 border-border-300\/30 py-2 pr-4 align-top\">40 or higher<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<\/div>\n<figure id=\"attachment_5308\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-5308\" style=\"width: 562px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-5308\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/855\/2015\/02\/27034211\/CNX_Psych_10_02_Bodymass_n1.jpg\" alt=\"A BMI chart showing weight and height as it corresponds with being underweight, in the normal range, overweight, or obese. For example, someone who is 5 foot 7 and under 120 lbs would be underweight, in the normal range through 155 lbs, overweight until 180 lbs, and obese beyond that.\" width=\"562\" height=\"459\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-5308\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 1<\/strong>. This chart is used to correlate weight and height with body mass index.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/section>\n<section class=\"textbox proTip\">\n<h3 class=\"text-text-100 mt-2 -mb-1 text-base font-bold\">Limitations of BMI<\/h3>\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body break-words whitespace-normal leading-[1.7]\">While BMI remains widely used for population-level studies and initial screening, its value as an individual assessment tool has significant limitations. In 2023, the American Medical Association (AMA) released a policy statement acknowledging that BMI is &#8220;an imperfect way to measure body fat&#8221; and has &#8220;historical harm&#8221; due to being based primarily on data from non-Hispanic white populations.<\/p>\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body break-words whitespace-normal leading-[1.7]\">Key limitations include:<\/p>\n<ul class=\"[li_&amp;]:mb-0 [li_&amp;]:mt-1 [li_&amp;]:gap-1 [&amp;:not(:last-child)_ul]:pb-1 [&amp;:not(:last-child)_ol]:pb-1 list-disc flex flex-col gap-1 pl-8 mb-3\">\n<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words pl-2\">Doesn&#8217;t distinguish fat from muscle \u2014 A muscular athlete may have a &#8220;obese&#8221; BMI despite low body fat<\/li>\n<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words pl-2\">Doesn&#8217;t account for fat distribution \u2014 Where fat is stored matters; visceral fat (around organs) poses greater health risks than subcutaneous fat<\/li>\n<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words pl-2\">Varies across populations \u2014 BMI thresholds developed for European populations may misclassify risk in Asian, Black, and other populations<\/li>\n<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words pl-2\">Ignores age and sex differences \u2014 Body composition changes with age and differs between sexes<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body break-words whitespace-normal leading-[1.7]\">The AMA now recommends that BMI be used <strong>in conjunction with other measures<\/strong>, such as:<\/p>\n<ul class=\"[li_&amp;]:mb-0 [li_&amp;]:mt-1 [li_&amp;]:gap-1 [&amp;:not(:last-child)_ul]:pb-1 [&amp;:not(:last-child)_ol]:pb-1 list-disc flex flex-col gap-1 pl-8 mb-3\">\n<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words pl-2\">Waist circumference \u2014 A better predictor of cardiometabolic risk; risk increases at 40+ inches for men and 35+ inches for women<\/li>\n<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words pl-2\">Waist-to-height ratio \u2014 Some research suggests keeping waist circumference below half your height<\/li>\n<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words pl-2\">Body composition assessment \u2014 When available, measures of actual fat mass and distribution<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/section>\n<h2 class=\"text-text-100 mt-3 -mb-1 text-[1.125rem] font-bold\">Health Consequences of Obesity<\/h2>\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body break-words whitespace-normal leading-[1.7]\">Being significantly overweight or obese increases the risk for numerous health conditions, including:<\/p>\n<ul class=\"[li_&amp;]:mb-0 [li_&amp;]:mt-1 [li_&amp;]:gap-1 [&amp;:not(:last-child)_ul]:pb-1 [&amp;:not(:last-child)_ol]:pb-1 list-disc flex flex-col gap-1 pl-8 mb-3\">\n<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words pl-2\">Cardiovascular disease and stroke<\/li>\n<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words pl-2\">Type 2 diabetes<\/li>\n<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words pl-2\">Liver disease<\/li>\n<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words pl-2\">Sleep apnea<\/li>\n<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words pl-2\">Certain cancers (colon, breast, and others)<\/li>\n<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words pl-2\">Infertility<\/li>\n<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words pl-2\">Arthritis and joint problems<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body break-words whitespace-normal leading-[1.7]\">According to the CDC, approximately <strong>40% of U.S. adults<\/strong> have obesity, and nearly <strong>10% have severe obesity<\/strong>. This represents a significant public health concern, as obesity-related conditions contribute to millions of deaths globally each year.<\/p>\n<h3>Causes of Obesity<\/h3>\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body break-words whitespace-normal leading-[1.7]\">Obesity results from a complex interaction of factors:<\/p>\n<h4 class=\"text-text-100 mt-2 -mb-1 text-base font-bold\">Biological Factors<\/h4>\n<ul class=\"[li_&amp;]:mb-0 [li_&amp;]:mt-1 [li_&amp;]:gap-1 [&amp;:not(:last-child)_ul]:pb-1 [&amp;:not(:last-child)_ol]:pb-1 list-disc flex flex-col gap-1 pl-8 mb-3\">\n<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words pl-2\">Genetics \u2014 Twin studies show strong heritability of body weight; hundreds of genes influence appetite, metabolism, and fat storage<\/li>\n<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words pl-2\">Hormonal regulation \u2014 As discussed in the previous section, hormones like leptin, ghrelin, and GLP-1 powerfully regulate hunger and satiety<\/li>\n<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words pl-2\">Metabolic differences \u2014 Individual variation in metabolic rate affects how efficiently the body uses energy<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h4 class=\"text-text-100 mt-2 -mb-1 text-base font-bold\">Environmental Factors<\/h4>\n<ul class=\"[li_&amp;]:mb-0 [li_&amp;]:mt-1 [li_&amp;]:gap-1 [&amp;:not(:last-child)_ul]:pb-1 [&amp;:not(:last-child)_ol]:pb-1 list-disc flex flex-col gap-1 pl-8 mb-3\">\n<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words pl-2\">Food environment \u2014 Availability of inexpensive, high-calorie, highly palatable foods<\/li>\n<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words pl-2\">Portion sizes \u2014 Restaurant and packaged food portions have increased dramatically over decades<\/li>\n<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words pl-2\">Physical activity \u2014 Sedentary lifestyles, mechanized transportation, and urban design limit activity<\/li>\n<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words pl-2\">Sleep and stress \u2014 Both affect hormones that regulate appetite and metabolism<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h4 class=\"text-text-100 mt-2 -mb-1 text-base font-bold\">Socioeconomic Factors<\/h4>\n<ul class=\"[li_&amp;]:mb-0 [li_&amp;]:mt-1 [li_&amp;]:gap-1 [&amp;:not(:last-child)_ul]:pb-1 [&amp;:not(:last-child)_ol]:pb-1 list-disc flex flex-col gap-1 pl-8 mb-3\">\n<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words pl-2\">Income and education \u2014 Obesity rates are higher in lower-income populations<\/li>\n<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words pl-2\">Food access \u2014 &#8220;Food deserts&#8221; in some neighborhoods limit access to fresh, healthy foods<\/li>\n<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words pl-2\">Time constraints \u2014 Working multiple jobs or long hours limits time for cooking and exercise<\/li>\n<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words pl-2\">Neighborhood safety \u2014 Unsafe neighborhoods discourage outdoor physical activity<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body break-words whitespace-normal leading-[1.7]\">Understanding obesity as resulting from this complex web of factors\u2014rather than simply &#8220;poor choices&#8221;\u2014is essential for developing effective interventions and reducing stigma.<\/p>\n<\/section>\n<section data-depth=\"1\">\n<h2>Weight Loss\u00a0Approaches<\/h2>\n<h3 class=\"text-text-100 mt-2 -mb-1 text-base font-bold\">Lifestyle Interventions<\/h3>\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body break-words whitespace-normal leading-[1.7]\">The foundation of obesity treatment remains <strong>diet and exercise<\/strong>. However, research shows that lifestyle interventions alone produce modest results\u2014typically 5-10% weight loss\u2014and most people regain weight over time. This isn&#8217;t due to lack of willpower; as discussed earlier, powerful biological mechanisms resist sustained weight loss.<\/p>\n<h3 class=\"text-text-100 mt-2 -mb-1 text-base font-bold\">Pharmacological Treatment: GLP-1 Medications<\/h3>\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body break-words whitespace-normal leading-[1.7]\">A revolution in obesity treatment began with the approval of <strong>GLP-1 receptor agonist medications<\/strong> for weight management. These include:<\/p>\n<ul class=\"[li_&amp;]:mb-0 [li_&amp;]:mt-1 [li_&amp;]:gap-1 [&amp;:not(:last-child)_ul]:pb-1 [&amp;:not(:last-child)_ol]:pb-1 list-disc flex flex-col gap-1 pl-8 mb-3\">\n<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words pl-2\">Semaglutide (Wegovy, Ozempic)<\/li>\n<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words pl-2\">Tirzepatide (Zepbound, Mounjaro) \u2014 a dual GLP-1\/GIP agonist<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body break-words whitespace-normal leading-[1.7]\">These medications work by mimicking the satiety hormone GLP-1, reducing hunger signals in the brain and slowing gastric emptying. Clinical trials showed impressive results:<\/p>\n<ul class=\"[li_&amp;]:mb-0 [li_&amp;]:mt-1 [li_&amp;]:gap-1 [&amp;:not(:last-child)_ul]:pb-1 [&amp;:not(:last-child)_ol]:pb-1 list-disc flex flex-col gap-1 pl-8 mb-3\">\n<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words pl-2\"><strong>Semaglutide:<\/strong> ~15-17% total body weight loss (e.g., ~40 pounds for someone starting at 250 lbs)<\/li>\n<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words pl-2\"><strong>Tirzepatide:<\/strong> ~20-22% total body weight loss (e.g., ~50 pounds for someone starting at 250 lbs)<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body break-words whitespace-normal leading-[1.7]\">These results far exceed what most people achieve through diet and exercise alone (typically 5-10%). However, real-world results often differ significantly from clinical trials. A 2025 study of over 50,000 patients found that those prescribed GLP-1 medications lost an average of only 12 pounds over two years\u2014far less than the 40-50+ pounds seen in trials.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Brown, A., Chhabra, K. R., Parikh, M. S., &amp; NYU Langone Health. (2025, June 17). Comparative effectiveness of semaglutide and tirzepatide vs. bariatric surgery [Conference presentation]. American Society for Metabolic and Bariatric Surgery Annual Scientific Meeting, Washington, DC, United States.\" id=\"return-footnote-752-1\" href=\"#footnote-752-1\" aria-label=\"Footnote 1\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[1]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body break-words whitespace-normal leading-[1.7]\"><strong>Key considerations:<\/strong><\/p>\n<ul class=\"[li_&amp;]:mb-0 [li_&amp;]:mt-1 [li_&amp;]:gap-1 [&amp;:not(:last-child)_ul]:pb-1 [&amp;:not(:last-child)_ol]:pb-1 list-disc flex flex-col gap-1 pl-8 mb-3\">\n<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words pl-2\">Weight typically returns when medication is stopped<\/li>\n<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words pl-2\">Long-term effects are still being studied<\/li>\n<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words pl-2\">Cost and insurance coverage remain barriers for many patients<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h3 class=\"text-text-100 mt-2 -mb-1 text-base font-bold\">Bariatric Surgery<\/h3>\n<figure style=\"width: 354px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/902\/2015\/02\/23224939\/CNX_Psych_10_02_Bariatric.jpg\" alt=\"An illustration depicts a gastric band wrapped around the top portion of a stomach. A bulging area directly above the gastric band is labeled \u201cSmall stomach pouch.\u201d The area directly below the stomach is labeled \u201cDuodenum.\u201d Down-facing arrows indicate the direction in which digested food travels from the esophagus at the top, down through the stomach, and into the duodenum.\" width=\"354\" height=\"290\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 2<\/strong>. Gastric banding surgery creates a small pouch of stomach, reducing the size of the stomach that can be used for digestion.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body break-words whitespace-normal leading-[1.7]\"><strong>Bariatric surgery<\/strong> involves modifying the gastrointestinal system to reduce food intake and\/or nutrient absorption. Common procedures include:<\/p>\n<ul class=\"[li_&amp;]:mb-0 [li_&amp;]:mt-1 [li_&amp;]:gap-1 [&amp;:not(:last-child)_ul]:pb-1 [&amp;:not(:last-child)_ol]:pb-1 list-disc flex flex-col gap-1 pl-8 mb-3\">\n<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words pl-2\">Sleeve gastrectomy \u2014 Removes approximately 80% of the stomach<\/li>\n<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words pl-2\">Gastric bypass (Roux-en-Y) \u2014 Creates a small stomach pouch and bypasses part of the small intestine<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body break-words whitespace-normal leading-[1.7]\">Bariatric surgery remains the most effective treatment for severe obesity, with patients typically losing 25-30% of body weight and maintaining significant weight loss for 10+ years. Recent studies comparing surgery to GLP-1 medications found surgery produced approximately five times more weight loss at two years (Gloy et al., 2013; ASMBS, 2025).<\/p>\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body break-words whitespace-normal leading-[1.7]\">Surgery is typically recommended when:<\/p>\n<ul class=\"[li_&amp;]:mb-0 [li_&amp;]:mt-1 [li_&amp;]:gap-1 [&amp;:not(:last-child)_ul]:pb-1 [&amp;:not(:last-child)_ol]:pb-1 list-disc flex flex-col gap-1 pl-8 mb-3\">\n<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words pl-2\">BMI is 40 or higher, OR<\/li>\n<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words pl-2\">BMI is 35 or higher with obesity-related health conditions, OR<\/li>\n<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words pl-2\">BMI is 30 or higher with inadequate response to other treatments<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h3 class=\"text-text-100 mt-2 -mb-1 text-base font-bold\">Combining Approaches<\/h3>\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body break-words whitespace-normal leading-[1.7]\">Increasingly, treatment involves <strong>combining approaches<\/strong>\u2014lifestyle changes plus medication, or medication before or after surgery. The goal is matching the right intervention to each individual&#8217;s needs and circumstances.<\/p>\n<section class=\"textbox connectIt\">\n<figure style=\"width: 202px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/902\/2015\/02\/23224941\/CNX_Psych_10_02_Obesity.jpg\" alt=\"A painting shows Eugenia Mart\u00ednez Vallejo.\" width=\"202\" height=\"315\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 3<\/strong>. Eugenia Mart\u00ednez Vallejo, depicted in this 1680 painting, may have had Prader-Willi syndrome. At just eight years old, she weighed approximately 120 pounds, and she was nicknamed \u201cLa Monstrua\u201d (the monster).<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body break-words whitespace-normal leading-[1.7]\"><strong>Prader-Willi Syndrome (PWS)<\/strong> is a genetic disorder that illustrates the powerful biological control of hunger. PWS results in:<\/p>\n<ul class=\"[li_&amp;]:mb-0 [li_&amp;]:mt-1 [li_&amp;]:gap-1 [&amp;:not(:last-child)_ul]:pb-1 [&amp;:not(:last-child)_ol]:pb-1 list-disc flex flex-col gap-1 pl-8 mb-3\">\n<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words pl-2\">Persistent, intense feelings of hunger<\/li>\n<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words pl-2\">Reduced metabolic rate<\/li>\n<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words pl-2\">Cognitive and emotional difficulties<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body break-words whitespace-normal leading-[1.7]\">Children with PWS often require 24-hour supervision to prevent excessive eating. The syndrome is currently the leading genetic cause of morbid obesity in children.<\/p>\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body break-words whitespace-normal leading-[1.7]\"><em>Figure 3. Eugenia Mart\u00ednez Vallejo, depicted in this 1680 painting, may have had Prader-Willi syndrome. At just eight years old, she weighed approximately 120 pounds.<\/em><\/p>\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body break-words whitespace-normal leading-[1.7]\">PWS demonstrates that hunger is not simply a matter of willpower\u2014it is controlled by biological systems that, when disrupted, can produce overwhelming drive to eat. Research shows that individuals with PWS have <strong>hypothalamic abnormalities<\/strong>, consistent with the hypothalamus&#8217;s central role in regulating hunger.<\/p>\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body break-words whitespace-normal leading-[1.7]\">While there is no cure for PWS, careful weight management can significantly increase life expectancy. Advances in growth hormone treatment and other interventions continue to improve quality of life for affected individuals (Cassidy &amp; Driscoll, 2009).<\/p>\n<\/section>\n<\/section>\n<section data-depth=\"1\">\n<section class=\"textbox tryIt\"><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"ohm4408\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/ohm.one.lumenlearning.com\/multiembedq.php?id=4408&theme=lumen&iframe_resize_id=ohm4408&source=tnh&show_question_numbers\" width=\"100%\" height=\"500\"><\/iframe><\/section>\n<section><\/section>\n<\/section>\n<hr class=\"before-footnotes clear\" \/><div class=\"footnotes\"><ol><li id=\"footnote-752-1\">Brown, A., Chhabra, K. R., Parikh, M. S., &amp; NYU Langone Health. (2025, June 17). Comparative effectiveness of semaglutide and tirzepatide vs. bariatric surgery [Conference presentation]. American Society for Metabolic and Bariatric Surgery Annual Scientific Meeting, Washington, DC, United States. <a href=\"#return-footnote-752-1\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 1\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><\/ol><\/div>","protected":false},"author":14,"menu_order":15,"template":"","meta":{"_candela_citation":"[{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"Hunger and Eating\",\"author\":\"OpenStax College\",\"organization\":\"\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/psychology-2e\/pages\/10-2-hunger-and-eating\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by\",\"license_terms\":\"Download for free at https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/psychology-2e\/pages\/1-introduction\"},{\"type\":\"original\",\"description\":\"Hunger interactive\",\"author\":\"Jessica Traylor for Lumen Learning\",\"organization\":\"Lumen Learning\",\"url\":\"\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by\",\"license_terms\":\"\"}]","pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[],"license":[],"part":711,"module-header":"learn_it","content_attributions":[{"type":"cc","description":"Hunger and Eating","author":"OpenStax College","organization":"","url":"https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/psychology-2e\/pages\/10-2-hunger-and-eating","project":"","license":"cc-by","license_terms":"Download for free at https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/psychology-2e\/pages\/1-introduction"},{"type":"original","description":"Hunger interactive","author":"Jessica Traylor for Lumen Learning","organization":"Lumen Learning","url":"","project":"","license":"cc-by","license_terms":""}],"internal_book_links":[],"video_content":null,"cc_video_embed_content":{"cc_scripts":"","media_targets":[]},"try_it_collection":null,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/introductiontopsychology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/752"}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/introductiontopsychology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/introductiontopsychology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/introductiontopsychology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/14"}],"version-history":[{"count":25,"href":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/introductiontopsychology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/752\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":7491,"href":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/introductiontopsychology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/752\/revisions\/7491"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/introductiontopsychology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/711"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/introductiontopsychology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/752\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/introductiontopsychology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=752"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/introductiontopsychology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=752"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/introductiontopsychology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=752"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/introductiontopsychology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=752"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}