cultural display rules<\/h3>\r\n
A cultural display rule<\/b><\/span> is a culturally specific guideline for which emotions it is acceptable to show, to whom, and in what situations (Malatesta & Haviland, 1982). Because cultures vary in what they value\u2014such as independence, harmony, or respect for authority\u2014people from different backgrounds may learn very different rules about emotional expression.<\/p>\r\n<\/section>\r\n For example, research has found that people in the United States are more likely to express negative emotions (such as anger or disgust) both when alone and when others are present, while people in Japan were more likely to show those negative emotions when alone and minimize them in social settings (Matsumoto, 1990). Other studies suggest that in cultures that emphasize social harmony, people may be more likely to suppress<\/span> emotional expression until they can decide what response best fits the situation (Matsumoto, Yoo, & Nakagawa, 2008).<\/p>\r\n Researchers have also explored whether there are gender differences in emotional expression and emotion regulation. Findings are mixed overall, but some evidence suggests that men and women may differ in the strategies they use to regulate emotion in certain contexts (McRae et al., 2008).<\/p>\r\n Even though cultures shape how emotions are displayed, many researchers argue that our ability to produce<\/b><\/span> and recognize<\/b><\/span> certain facial expressions is widespread across cultures. One piece of evidence comes from studies showing that congenitally blind individuals\u2014who have never seen others\u2019 facial expressions\u2014still produce recognizable facial expressions that match common emotion categories. Research in this tradition suggests that several emotions are associated with distinct facial expressions that people across many cultures can identify, including happiness, surprise, sadness, fear, disgust, contempt, and anger<\/b><\/span> (Ekman & Keltner, 1997).<\/p>\r\n Does smiling make you happy\u2014or does being happy make you smile?<\/p>\r\n The facial feedback hypothesis<\/b><\/span> proposes that facial expressions can influence emotional experience. In other words, your face may do more than show<\/i> emotion\u2014it may also help shape<\/i> it (Adelman & Zajonc, 1989; Strack, Martin, & Stepper, 1988). Some studies suggest that suppressing facial expressions can reduce the intensity of certain emotions (Davis, Senghas, & Ochsner, 2009). Other research has explored what happens when facial muscle movement is limited. For example, Havas and colleagues (2010) studied people who received Botox injections that reduced frowning and found that participants reported less depressive experience afterward. Related findings suggest that the intensity<\/b><\/span> of an expression may matter too. A bigger smile may amplify a positive feeling, while habitual frowning may nudge emotional experience in a more negative direction (Soussignan, 2002; Strack et al., 1988).<\/p>\r\n<\/section>\r\n<\/section>\r\n Of course, emotion is not only displayed through facial expressions. We also use the tone of our voice, various behaviors, and body language to communicate information about our emotional states.<\/p>\r\n Body language<\/strong> is the expression of emotion in terms of body position or movement. Research suggests that we are quite sensitive to the emotional information communicated through body language, even if we\u2019re not consciously aware of it (de Gelder, 2006; Tamietto et al., 2009).<\/p>\r\n<\/section>\r\n Autism spectrum disorder (ASD)<\/b><\/span> is a set of neurodevelopmental conditions involving differences in communication, social interaction, and patterns of behavior. Many autistic individuals have difficulty interpreting certain kinds of nonverbal emotional cues, particularly facial expressions, which can make social situations more challenging (Hobson, 1986).<\/p>\r\n Research also suggests that some autistic individuals may express emotion differently through facial movement or vocal tone (Macdonald et al., 1989). These differences do not<\/i> mean autistic people lack emotion\u2014rather, emotional signals may be communicated or interpreted differently.<\/p>\r\n Because social interaction often relies on reading emotional cues, researchers and clinicians have explored supports that help with emotion recognition and social understanding. Some educational programs and structured interventions have shown promise (Bauminger, 2002; Golan & Baron-Cohen, 2006; Guastella et al., 2010).<\/p>\r\n<\/section>\r\n<\/section>\r\nuniversal expressions<\/h3>\r\n
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Figure 1<\/strong>. The seven universal facial expressions of emotion are shown. (credit: modification of work by Cory Zanker)[\/caption]\r\n<\/figure>\r\n<\/section>\r\nfacial feedback hypothesis<\/h3>\r\n
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\r\n<\/p>\r\nbody language<\/h3>\r\n
Autism Spectrum Disorder and Expression of Emotions<\/strong><\/h3>\r\n