aggression<\/h3>\r\n
Aggression<\/b><\/span> refers to behavior intended to cause harm or pain to another person. Psychologists distinguish between two main types of aggression based on motivation.<\/p>\r\n Psychologists have proposed several explanations for aggressive behavior.<\/p>\r\n Frustration\u2013Aggression Theory<\/b><\/p>\r\n According to frustration\u2013aggression theory<\/b><\/span>, aggression is more likely when people are blocked from achieving an important goal (Dollard et al., 1939). For example, repeated obstacles, perceived unfairness, or chronic stress may increase aggressive responses\u2014especially when people feel they have little control over the situation.<\/p>\r\n Evolutionary Perspectives<\/b><\/p>\r\n Some researchers argue that aggression has served evolutionary functions related to survival and reproduction (Buss, 2004). From this perspective, aggression\u2014particularly among males\u2014may have historically helped establish dominance, protect resources, or compete for mates (Wilson & Daly, 1985).<\/p>\r\n Research has found that:<\/p>\r\n It is important to note that these patterns reflect statistical trends<\/span>, not fixed traits. People of all genders can engage in many forms of aggression, and behavior is strongly shaped by social context, culture, and learning.<\/p>\r\n<\/section>\r\n<\/section>\r\n Another important form of aggression\u2014especially relevant to children and adolescents\u2014is bullying<\/b><\/span>.<\/p>\r\n Bullying<\/b><\/span> is repeated negative treatment of another person over time (Olweus, 1993). A single conflict or fight does not qualify as bullying. Instead, bullying involves a pattern of behavior<\/b><\/span> intended to harm, intimidate, or humiliate.<\/p>\r\n<\/section>\r\n Bullying can take many forms:<\/p>\r\n Bullying involves three roles: the bully<\/span>, the victim<\/span>, and often bystanders<\/span> who witness the behavior. A key feature of bullying is an imbalance of power<\/span>, where the bully holds greater physical, social, or emotional power. While bullies may experience short-term gains such as social status or a sense of control, bullying has serious negative consequences for victims and witnesses.<\/p>\r\n Victims of bullying are more likely to experience anxiety and depression, academic difficulties, and increased risk of suicidal thoughts and behaviors (APA, 2010; Bowen, 2011).<\/p>\r\n Research suggests that:<\/p>\r\n There is no single personality type for bullies or victims, but certain factors increase vulnerability. Children who are emotionally reactive or perceived as \u201cdifferent\u201d are at higher risk of being targeted. This may include children who are overweight, have disabilities, or belong to racial, ethnic, or cultural minority groups.<\/p>\r\n Lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer youth are at especially high risk<\/span> for bullying and harassment.<\/p>\r\n Recent findings show that:<\/p>\r\n Importantly, affirming school environments<\/span>\u2014including inclusive policies, supportive educators, and LGBTQ-affirming clubs\u2014serve as protective factors that reduce bullying and improve mental health outcomes (The Trevor Project, 2022).<\/p>\r\n Cyberbullying<\/strong>, like bullying, is repeated behavior that is intended to cause psychological or emotional harm to another person. What is unique about cyberbullying is that it is typically covert, concealed, done in private, and the bully can remain anonymous. This anonymity gives the bully power, and the victim may feel helpless, unable to escape the harassment, and unable to retaliate (Spears, Slee, Owens, & Johnson, 2009).<\/p>\r\n<\/section>\r\n Cyberbullying can take many forms, including:<\/p>\r\n More recent research highlights that cyberbullying often occurs in peer group spaces<\/b><\/span>, such as class group chats or shared social media feeds, where bystanders play a significant role in reinforcing\u2014or interrupting\u2014harmful behavior.<\/p>\r\n Studies continue to find gender differences in cyberbullying patterns. Girls are more likely to experience and engage in cyberbullying, in part because it relies on indirect or relational aggression<\/span> rather than physical force (Hoff & Mitchell, 2009). However, recent research suggests these differences are narrowing as online interaction becomes more central for all genders.<\/p>\r\n More recent studies show that both victims and perpetrators<\/b><\/span> of cyberbullying are at elevated risk for mental health challenges, including loneliness, substance use, and suicidal ideation (Kowalski et al., 2020; John et al., 2023). The constant connectivity of digital spaces can intensify stress and make recovery more difficult.<\/p>\r\n Protective factors\u2014such as supportive peers, trusted adults, clear school policies, and digital literacy education\u2014significantly reduce harm and improve outcomes for young people.<\/p>\r\n People influence one another\u2019s thoughts, feelings, and behaviors\u2014sometimes in positive ways, and sometimes in harmful ones. Humans can work together to help others in emergencies, build strong communities, and promote well-being. At the same time, social influence can also contribute to harm, such as when people conform to immoral group norms or obey authority figures without questioning their actions.<\/p>\n In this section, we focus on one negative aspect of social behavior: aggression<\/b><\/span>.<\/p>\n Aggression<\/b><\/span> refers to behavior intended to cause harm or pain to another person. Psychologists distinguish between two main types of aggression based on motivation.<\/p>\n Psychologists have proposed several explanations for aggressive behavior.<\/p>\n Frustration\u2013Aggression Theory<\/b><\/p>\n According to frustration\u2013aggression theory<\/b><\/span>, aggression is more likely when people are blocked from achieving an important goal (Dollard et al., 1939). For example, repeated obstacles, perceived unfairness, or chronic stress may increase aggressive responses\u2014especially when people feel they have little control over the situation.<\/p>\n Evolutionary Perspectives<\/b><\/p>\n Some researchers argue that aggression has served evolutionary functions related to survival and reproduction (Buss, 2004). From this perspective, aggression\u2014particularly among males\u2014may have historically helped establish dominance, protect resources, or compete for mates (Wilson & Daly, 1985).<\/p>\n Research has found that:<\/p>\n It is important to note that these patterns reflect statistical trends<\/span>, not fixed traits. People of all genders can engage in many forms of aggression, and behavior is strongly shaped by social context, culture, and learning.<\/p>\n<\/section>\n<\/section>\n Another important form of aggression\u2014especially relevant to children and adolescents\u2014is bullying<\/b><\/span>.<\/p>\n Bullying<\/b><\/span> is repeated negative treatment of another person over time (Olweus, 1993). A single conflict or fight does not qualify as bullying. Instead, bullying involves a pattern of behavior<\/b><\/span> intended to harm, intimidate, or humiliate.<\/p>\n<\/section>\n Bullying can take many forms:<\/p>\n Bullying involves three roles: the bully<\/span>, the victim<\/span>, and often bystanders<\/span> who witness the behavior. A key feature of bullying is an imbalance of power<\/span>, where the bully holds greater physical, social, or emotional power. While bullies may experience short-term gains such as social status or a sense of control, bullying has serious negative consequences for victims and witnesses.<\/p>\n Victims of bullying are more likely to experience anxiety and depression, academic difficulties, and increased risk of suicidal thoughts and behaviors (APA, 2010; Bowen, 2011).<\/p>\n Research suggests that:<\/p>\n There is no single personality type for bullies or victims, but certain factors increase vulnerability. Children who are emotionally reactive or perceived as \u201cdifferent\u201d are at higher risk of being targeted. This may include children who are overweight, have disabilities, or belong to racial, ethnic, or cultural minority groups.<\/p>\n Lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer youth are at especially high risk<\/span> for bullying and harassment.<\/p>\n Recent findings show that:<\/p>\n Importantly, affirming school environments<\/span>\u2014including inclusive policies, supportive educators, and LGBTQ-affirming clubs\u2014serve as protective factors that reduce bullying and improve mental health outcomes (The Trevor Project, 2022).<\/p>\n Cyberbullying<\/strong>, like bullying, is repeated behavior that is intended to cause psychological or emotional harm to another person. What is unique about cyberbullying is that it is typically covert, concealed, done in private, and the bully can remain anonymous. This anonymity gives the bully power, and the victim may feel helpless, unable to escape the harassment, and unable to retaliate (Spears, Slee, Owens, & Johnson, 2009).<\/p>\n<\/section>\n Cyberbullying can take many forms, including:<\/p>\n More recent research highlights that cyberbullying often occurs in peer group spaces<\/b><\/span>, such as class group chats or shared social media feeds, where bystanders play a significant role in reinforcing\u2014or interrupting\u2014harmful behavior.<\/p>\n Studies continue to find gender differences in cyberbullying patterns. Girls are more likely to experience and engage in cyberbullying, in part because it relies on indirect or relational aggression<\/span> rather than physical force (Hoff & Mitchell, 2009). However, recent research suggests these differences are narrowing as online interaction becomes more central for all genders.<\/p>\n More recent studies show that both victims and perpetrators<\/b><\/span> of cyberbullying are at elevated risk for mental health challenges, including loneliness, substance use, and suicidal ideation (Kowalski et al., 2020; John et al., 2023). The constant connectivity of digital spaces can intensify stress and make recovery more difficult.<\/p>\n Protective factors\u2014such as supportive peers, trusted adults, clear school policies, and digital literacy education\u2014significantly reduce harm and improve outcomes for young people.<\/p>\n\r\n\t
Why Does Aggression Occur?<\/b><\/h3>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"380\"]
![\"A](\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/ospsych\/m49129\/CNX_Psych_12_06_dominance.jpg#fixme\")
Figure 1<\/strong>. Human males and nonhuman male primates endeavor to gain and display dominance over other males, as demonstrated in the behavior of these monkeys. (credit: \u201cArcadiu\u0161\u201d\/Flickr)[\/caption]\r\n\r\n\r\n\t
Bullying<\/b><\/h3>\r\n
bullying<\/h3>\r\n
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Cyberbullying<\/h3>\r\n
cyberbullying<\/h3>\r\n
Common Forms of Cyberbullying<\/b><\/h3>\r\n
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Aggression<\/b><\/h2>\n
aggression<\/h3>\n
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Why Does Aggression Occur?<\/b><\/h3>\n
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Bullying<\/b><\/h3>\n
bullying<\/h3>\n
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Cyberbullying<\/h3>\n
cyberbullying<\/h3>\n
Common Forms of Cyberbullying<\/b><\/h3>\n
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