{"id":558,"date":"2023-03-03T19:13:20","date_gmt":"2023-03-03T19:13:20","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/introductiontopsychology\/chapter\/9-2-3-learn-it-piagets-preoperational-stage\/"},"modified":"2025-12-03T18:14:17","modified_gmt":"2025-12-03T18:14:17","slug":"9-2-3-learn-it-piagets-preoperational-stage","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/introductiontopsychology\/chapter\/9-2-3-learn-it-piagets-preoperational-stage\/","title":{"raw":"Child Development: Learn It 5\u2014Piaget's Preoperational Stage","rendered":"Child Development: Learn It 5\u2014Piaget&#8217;s Preoperational Stage"},"content":{"raw":"<h2>The Preoperational Stage<\/h2>\r\n<p>Preschool-age children (ages 3\u20135) make steady progress in cognitive development. Not only can they count, name colors, and tell you their name and age, but they can also make some decisions on their own, such as choosing an outfit to wear.<\/p>\r\n<p>Preschool-age children understand basic time concepts and sequencing (e.g., before and after), and they can predict what will happen next in a story. They also begin to enjoy the use of humor in stories. Because they can think symbolically, they enjoy pretend play and inventing elaborate characters and scenarios. One of the most common examples of their cognitive growth is their blossoming curiosity. Preschool-age children love to ask \"Why?\"<\/p>\r\n<section class=\"textbox keyTakeaway\">\r\n<h3>the preoperational stage<\/h3>\r\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body whitespace-normal break-words\">Piaget's second stage is the preoperational stage, which lasts from approximately 2 to 7 years old. In this stage, children can use symbols to represent words, images, and ideas, which is why children engage in pretend play. A child's arms might become airplane wings as they zoom around the room, or a child with a stick might become a brave knight with a sword.<\/p>\r\n<\/section>\r\n<h3 class=\"font-claude-response-subheading text-text-100 mt-1 -mb-1.5\">Symbolic Thinking and Language Development<\/h3>\r\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body whitespace-normal break-words\">Children begin to use language extensively during the preoperational stage, but they cannot yet understand adult logic or mentally manipulate information. The term <strong>operational<\/strong> refers to logical manipulation of information, so children at this stage are considered <strong>pre-operational<\/strong>.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body whitespace-normal break-words\">Children's logic is based on their own personal knowledge of the world so far, rather than on conventional knowledge.<\/p>\r\n<section class=\"textbox example\" aria-label=\"Example\">\r\n<p>Imagine Dad gave a slice of pizza to 10-year-old Keiko and another slice to her 3-year-old brother, Kenny. Kenny's pizza slice was cut into five pieces, so Kenny told his sister that he got more pizza than she did. Kenny focused on the number of pieces rather than understanding that the total amount remained the same.<\/p>\r\n<\/section>\r\n<h3 class=\"font-claude-response-subheading text-text-100 mt-1 -mb-1.5\">Lack of Conservation<\/h3>\r\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body whitespace-normal break-words\">Children in this stage cannot perform mental operations because they have not developed an understanding of <strong>conservation<\/strong>\u2014the idea that even if you change the appearance of something, it is still equal in size as long as nothing has been removed or added.<\/p>\r\n<section class=\"textbox watchIt\">This video shows a 4.5-year-old boy in the preoperational stage as he responds to Piaget\u2019s conservation tasks.<iframe src=\"\/\/plugin.3playmedia.com\/show?mf=1793476&amp;p3sdk_version=1.10.1&amp;p=20361&amp;pt=573&amp;video_id=gnArvcWaH6I&amp;video_target=tpm-plugin-wleqzm66-gnArvcWaH6I\" width=\"800px\" height=\"500px\" frameborder=\"0\" marginwidth=\"0px\" marginheight=\"0px\" data-mce-fragment=\"1\"><\/iframe><br \/>\r\nYou can <a href=\"https:\/\/oerfiles.s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/Psychology\/Transcriptions\/ATypicalChildOnPiagetsConservationTasks.txt\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">view the transcript for \"A typical child on Piaget's conservation tasks\" here (opens in new window)<\/a>.<\/section>\r\n<h3 class=\"font-claude-response-subheading text-text-100 mt-1 -mb-1.5\">Egocentrism<\/h3>\r\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body whitespace-normal break-words\">During this stage, children display <strong>egocentrism<\/strong>, which means they are not able to take the perspective of others. A child at this stage thinks that everyone sees, thinks, and feels just as they do.<\/p>\r\n<section class=\"textbox example\" aria-label=\"Example\">\r\n<p>Keiko's birthday is coming up, so their mom takes Kenny to the toy store to choose a present for his sister. He selects an Iron Man action figure for her, thinking that if he likes the toy, his sister will too. An egocentric child cannot infer the perspective of other people and instead attributes their own perspective to others.<\/p>\r\n<\/section>\r\n<section class=\"textbox watchIt\">Piaget developed the Three-Mountain Task to determine the level of egocentrism displayed by children. Children view a 3-dimensional mountain scene from one viewpoint, and are asked what another person at a different viewpoint would see in the same scene. Watch the Three-Mountain Task in action in this short video from the University of Minnesota and the Science Museum of Minnesota.<br \/>\r\n<iframe src=\"\/\/plugin.3playmedia.com\/show?mf=1793477&amp;p3sdk_version=1.10.1&amp;p=20361&amp;pt=573&amp;video_id=v4oYOjVDgo0&amp;video_target=tpm-plugin-51z6ptuj-v4oYOjVDgo0\" width=\"800px\" height=\"500px\" frameborder=\"0\" marginwidth=\"0px\" marginheight=\"0px\" data-mce-fragment=\"1\"><\/iframe><br \/>\r\nYou can <a href=\"https:\/\/oerfiles.s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/Psychology\/Transcriptions\/PiagetsMountainsTask.txt\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">view the transcript for \"Piaget's Mountains Task\" here (opens in new window)<\/a><\/section>\r\n<div data-type=\"note\" data-label=\"Link to Learning\">\r\n<div>\r\n<section class=\"textbox tryIt\">[ohm2_question height=\"900\"]4296[\/ohm2_question]<\/section>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<section id=\"fs-idm63810400\" class=\"critical-thinking\" data-depth=\"1\">\r\n<h3 class=\"font-claude-response-subheading text-text-100 mt-1 -mb-1.5\">Additional Characteristics of Preoperational Thought<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li class=\"font-claude-response-body whitespace-normal break-words\"><strong>Centration:<\/strong> The tendency to focus on one aspect of a situation while ignoring others. For example, in conservation tasks, children focus on the height of liquid in a glass while ignoring its width.<\/li>\r\n\t<li class=\"font-claude-response-body whitespace-normal break-words\"><strong>Irreversibility:<\/strong> Difficulty understanding that actions can be reversed. Preoperational children struggle to mentally reverse an action they have just witnessed.<\/li>\r\n\t<li class=\"font-claude-response-body whitespace-normal break-words\"><strong>Animism:<\/strong> The belief that inanimate objects have lifelike qualities and are capable of action. A child might think the sun is happy or that a doll feels sad.<\/li>\r\n\t<li class=\"font-claude-response-body whitespace-normal break-words\"><strong>Transductive reasoning:<\/strong> Reasoning from one specific instance to another specific instance, rather than from general to specific (deductive) or specific to general (inductive). For example, a child might reason, \"I had a dog and it barked, so all dogs must bark.\"<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h3 class=\"font-claude-response-heading text-text-100 mt-1 -mb-0.5\">Theory of Mind: Understanding Others' Mental States<\/h3>\r\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body whitespace-normal break-words\">At some point during the preoperational stage\u2014typically between 3 and 5 years old\u2014children come to understand that people have thoughts, feelings, and beliefs that are different from their own. This is known as theory of mind (ToM).<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body whitespace-normal break-words\"><strong>Theory of mind<\/strong> refers to the ability to attribute mental states to oneself and others\u2014understanding that others have beliefs, desires, plans, and intentions that may differ from one's own. This ability is essential for social interaction and communication.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body whitespace-normal break-words\">Research shows that ToM develops in a predictable sequence during early childhood:<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body whitespace-normal break-words\"><strong>Ages 2-3:<\/strong> Children understand that people have desires and emotions<\/p>\r\n<ul class=\"[&amp;:not(:last-child)_ul]:pb-1 [&amp;:not(:last-child)_ol]:pb-1 list-disc space-y-2.5 pl-7\">\r\n\t<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words\">They recognize that others may want different things<\/li>\r\n\t<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words\">They understand basic emotions in themselves and others<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body whitespace-normal break-words\"><strong>Ages 3-4:<\/strong> Children begin to understand that people have beliefs<\/p>\r\n<ul class=\"[&amp;:not(:last-child)_ul]:pb-1 [&amp;:not(:last-child)_ol]:pb-1 list-disc space-y-2.5 pl-7\">\r\n\t<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words\">They recognize that people can have different knowledge<\/li>\r\n\t<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words\">They start to understand that seeing leads to knowing<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body whitespace-normal break-words\"><strong>Ages 4-5:<\/strong> Children develop understanding of false beliefs<\/p>\r\n<ul class=\"[&amp;:not(:last-child)_ul]:pb-1 [&amp;:not(:last-child)_ol]:pb-1 list-disc space-y-2.5 pl-7\">\r\n\t<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words\">They recognize that others can believe something that is not true<\/li>\r\n\t<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words\">They understand that people's actions are based on their beliefs, even when those beliefs are incorrect<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body whitespace-normal break-words\"><strong>False-belief tasks<\/strong> are useful in determining a child's acquisition of theory of mind. These tasks assess whether children understand that others can hold beliefs that differ from reality.<\/p>\r\n<section class=\"textbox watchIt\">False-belief tasks are useful in determining a child\u2019s acquisition of theory-of-mind (TOM). <br \/>\r\nTake a look at this <a href=\"http:\/\/openstaxcollege.org\/l\/crayons\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">video clip showing a false-belief task involving a box of crayons<\/a>.<br \/>\r\n<iframe src=\"\/\/plugin.3playmedia.com\/show?mf=1793482&amp;p3sdk_version=1.10.1&amp;p=20361&amp;pt=573&amp;video_id=8hLubgpY2_w&amp;video_target=tpm-plugin-j86iu9me-8hLubgpY2_w\" width=\"800px\" height=\"500px\" frameborder=\"0\" marginwidth=\"0px\" marginheight=\"0px\" data-mce-fragment=\"1\"><\/iframe><br \/>\r\nYou can <a href=\"https:\/\/oerfiles.s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/Psychology\/Transcriptions\/TheFalseBeliefTestTheoryOfMind.txt\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">view the transcript for \"The \"False Belief\" Test: Theory of Mind\" here (opens in new window)<\/a>.<\/section>\r\n<div>\r\n<section class=\"textbox tryIt\">[ohm2_question height=\"400\"]11871[\/ohm2_question]<\/section>\r\n<section>\r\n<h3 class=\"font-claude-response-subheading text-text-100 mt-1 -mb-1.5\">Current Research on Theory of Mind<\/h3>\r\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body whitespace-normal break-words\">ToM continues to develop well beyond age 5, with children showing increasing sophistication in understanding complex mental states through middle childhood and adolescence (Wellman et al., 2020; Erceg et al., 2025).[footnote]Erceg HG, Dhillon RS, Derksen DG, Mah EY and Bernstein DM (2025) A longitudinal study of theory of mind across the lifespan. Front. Psychol. 16:1549378. doi: 10.3389\/fpsyg.2025.1549378[\/footnote]<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body whitespace-normal break-words\"><strong>Individual differences:<\/strong> Several factors influence the rate of ToM development:<\/p>\r\n<ul class=\"[&amp;:not(:last-child)_ul]:pb-1 [&amp;:not(:last-child)_ol]:pb-1 list-disc space-y-2.5 pl-7\">\r\n\t<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words\"><strong>Language abilities:<\/strong> Children with more advanced language skills tend to develop ToM earlier<\/li>\r\n\t<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words\"><strong>Sibling relationships:<\/strong> Children with siblings, particularly older siblings, show earlier ToM development<\/li>\r\n\t<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words\"><strong>Parent-child conversations:<\/strong> Mothers who talk about thoughts, wants, and feelings promote earlier ToM understanding<\/li>\r\n\t<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words\"><strong>Pretend play:<\/strong> Participation in pretend play accelerates ToM development<\/li>\r\n\t<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words\"><strong>Cultural context:<\/strong> Children from different cultures may develop aspects of ToM at different rates or in different sequences<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body whitespace-normal break-words\"><strong>Social outcomes:<\/strong> Children with more developed theory of mind tend to be:<\/p>\r\n<ul class=\"[&amp;:not(:last-child)_ul]:pb-1 [&amp;:not(:last-child)_ol]:pb-1 list-disc space-y-2.5 pl-7\">\r\n\t<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words\">Better communicators who can resolve conflicts with friends<\/li>\r\n\t<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words\">More popular with peers<\/li>\r\n\t<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words\">Rated as more socially competent by teachers<\/li>\r\n\t<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words\">Happier in school<\/li>\r\n\t<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words\">More advanced in some areas of schoolwork<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body whitespace-normal break-words\">However, well-developed ToM can also be used in antisocial ways, such as teasing, bullying, and lying.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body whitespace-normal break-words\">Recent research using brain imaging has identified that neural sensitivity to others' belief states in infancy predicts later ToM reasoning in childhood, suggesting biological foundations for this ability (Liu et al., 2025).<\/p>\r\n<h3 class=\"font-claude-response-heading text-text-100 mt-1 -mb-0.5\">Contemporary Understanding<\/h3>\r\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body whitespace-normal break-words\">While Piaget's preoperational stage provides a valuable framework, modern research suggests some refinements:<\/p>\r\n<ul class=\"[&amp;:not(:last-child)_ul]:pb-1 [&amp;:not(:last-child)_ol]:pb-1 list-disc space-y-2.5 pl-7\">\r\n\t<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words\">Children may be less egocentric than Piaget proposed when tasks are simplified<\/li>\r\n\t<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words\">Some conservation understanding may emerge earlier than Piaget suggested<\/li>\r\n\t<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words\">ToM development is more gradual and continuous than Piaget's stage theory implies<\/li>\r\n\t<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words\">Cultural and social factors play significant roles in cognitive development during this period<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body whitespace-normal break-words\">Despite these refinements, Piaget's description of preoperational thought captures important differences in how young children think compared to older children and adults.<\/p>\r\n<\/section>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section>","rendered":"<h2>The Preoperational Stage<\/h2>\n<p>Preschool-age children (ages 3\u20135) make steady progress in cognitive development. Not only can they count, name colors, and tell you their name and age, but they can also make some decisions on their own, such as choosing an outfit to wear.<\/p>\n<p>Preschool-age children understand basic time concepts and sequencing (e.g., before and after), and they can predict what will happen next in a story. They also begin to enjoy the use of humor in stories. Because they can think symbolically, they enjoy pretend play and inventing elaborate characters and scenarios. One of the most common examples of their cognitive growth is their blossoming curiosity. Preschool-age children love to ask &#8220;Why?&#8221;<\/p>\n<section class=\"textbox keyTakeaway\">\n<h3>the preoperational stage<\/h3>\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body whitespace-normal break-words\">Piaget&#8217;s second stage is the preoperational stage, which lasts from approximately 2 to 7 years old. In this stage, children can use symbols to represent words, images, and ideas, which is why children engage in pretend play. A child&#8217;s arms might become airplane wings as they zoom around the room, or a child with a stick might become a brave knight with a sword.<\/p>\n<\/section>\n<h3 class=\"font-claude-response-subheading text-text-100 mt-1 -mb-1.5\">Symbolic Thinking and Language Development<\/h3>\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body whitespace-normal break-words\">Children begin to use language extensively during the preoperational stage, but they cannot yet understand adult logic or mentally manipulate information. The term <strong>operational<\/strong> refers to logical manipulation of information, so children at this stage are considered <strong>pre-operational<\/strong>.<\/p>\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body whitespace-normal break-words\">Children&#8217;s logic is based on their own personal knowledge of the world so far, rather than on conventional knowledge.<\/p>\n<section class=\"textbox example\" aria-label=\"Example\">\n<p>Imagine Dad gave a slice of pizza to 10-year-old Keiko and another slice to her 3-year-old brother, Kenny. Kenny&#8217;s pizza slice was cut into five pieces, so Kenny told his sister that he got more pizza than she did. Kenny focused on the number of pieces rather than understanding that the total amount remained the same.<\/p>\n<\/section>\n<h3 class=\"font-claude-response-subheading text-text-100 mt-1 -mb-1.5\">Lack of Conservation<\/h3>\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body whitespace-normal break-words\">Children in this stage cannot perform mental operations because they have not developed an understanding of <strong>conservation<\/strong>\u2014the idea that even if you change the appearance of something, it is still equal in size as long as nothing has been removed or added.<\/p>\n<section class=\"textbox watchIt\">This video shows a 4.5-year-old boy in the preoperational stage as he responds to Piaget\u2019s conservation tasks.<iframe loading=\"lazy\" src=\"\/\/plugin.3playmedia.com\/show?mf=1793476&amp;p3sdk_version=1.10.1&amp;p=20361&amp;pt=573&amp;video_id=gnArvcWaH6I&amp;video_target=tpm-plugin-wleqzm66-gnArvcWaH6I\" width=\"800px\" height=\"500px\" frameborder=\"0\" marginwidth=\"0px\" marginheight=\"0px\" data-mce-fragment=\"1\"><\/iframe><br \/>\nYou can <a href=\"https:\/\/oerfiles.s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/Psychology\/Transcriptions\/ATypicalChildOnPiagetsConservationTasks.txt\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">view the transcript for &#8220;A typical child on Piaget&#8217;s conservation tasks&#8221; here (opens in new window)<\/a>.<\/section>\n<h3 class=\"font-claude-response-subheading text-text-100 mt-1 -mb-1.5\">Egocentrism<\/h3>\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body whitespace-normal break-words\">During this stage, children display <strong>egocentrism<\/strong>, which means they are not able to take the perspective of others. A child at this stage thinks that everyone sees, thinks, and feels just as they do.<\/p>\n<section class=\"textbox example\" aria-label=\"Example\">\n<p>Keiko&#8217;s birthday is coming up, so their mom takes Kenny to the toy store to choose a present for his sister. He selects an Iron Man action figure for her, thinking that if he likes the toy, his sister will too. An egocentric child cannot infer the perspective of other people and instead attributes their own perspective to others.<\/p>\n<\/section>\n<section class=\"textbox watchIt\">Piaget developed the Three-Mountain Task to determine the level of egocentrism displayed by children. Children view a 3-dimensional mountain scene from one viewpoint, and are asked what another person at a different viewpoint would see in the same scene. Watch the Three-Mountain Task in action in this short video from the University of Minnesota and the Science Museum of Minnesota.<br \/>\n<iframe loading=\"lazy\" src=\"\/\/plugin.3playmedia.com\/show?mf=1793477&amp;p3sdk_version=1.10.1&amp;p=20361&amp;pt=573&amp;video_id=v4oYOjVDgo0&amp;video_target=tpm-plugin-51z6ptuj-v4oYOjVDgo0\" width=\"800px\" height=\"500px\" frameborder=\"0\" marginwidth=\"0px\" marginheight=\"0px\" data-mce-fragment=\"1\"><\/iframe><br \/>\nYou can <a href=\"https:\/\/oerfiles.s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/Psychology\/Transcriptions\/PiagetsMountainsTask.txt\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">view the transcript for &#8220;Piaget&#8217;s Mountains Task&#8221; here (opens in new window)<\/a><\/section>\n<div data-type=\"note\" data-label=\"Link to Learning\">\n<div>\n<section class=\"textbox tryIt\"><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"ohm4296\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/ohm.one.lumenlearning.com\/multiembedq.php?id=4296&theme=lumen&iframe_resize_id=ohm4296&source=tnh&show_question_numbers\" width=\"100%\" height=\"900\"><\/iframe><\/section>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<section id=\"fs-idm63810400\" class=\"critical-thinking\" data-depth=\"1\">\n<h3 class=\"font-claude-response-subheading text-text-100 mt-1 -mb-1.5\">Additional Characteristics of Preoperational Thought<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li class=\"font-claude-response-body whitespace-normal break-words\"><strong>Centration:<\/strong> The tendency to focus on one aspect of a situation while ignoring others. For example, in conservation tasks, children focus on the height of liquid in a glass while ignoring its width.<\/li>\n<li class=\"font-claude-response-body whitespace-normal break-words\"><strong>Irreversibility:<\/strong> Difficulty understanding that actions can be reversed. Preoperational children struggle to mentally reverse an action they have just witnessed.<\/li>\n<li class=\"font-claude-response-body whitespace-normal break-words\"><strong>Animism:<\/strong> The belief that inanimate objects have lifelike qualities and are capable of action. A child might think the sun is happy or that a doll feels sad.<\/li>\n<li class=\"font-claude-response-body whitespace-normal break-words\"><strong>Transductive reasoning:<\/strong> Reasoning from one specific instance to another specific instance, rather than from general to specific (deductive) or specific to general (inductive). For example, a child might reason, &#8220;I had a dog and it barked, so all dogs must bark.&#8221;<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h3 class=\"font-claude-response-heading text-text-100 mt-1 -mb-0.5\">Theory of Mind: Understanding Others&#8217; Mental States<\/h3>\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body whitespace-normal break-words\">At some point during the preoperational stage\u2014typically between 3 and 5 years old\u2014children come to understand that people have thoughts, feelings, and beliefs that are different from their own. This is known as theory of mind (ToM).<\/p>\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body whitespace-normal break-words\"><strong>Theory of mind<\/strong> refers to the ability to attribute mental states to oneself and others\u2014understanding that others have beliefs, desires, plans, and intentions that may differ from one&#8217;s own. This ability is essential for social interaction and communication.<\/p>\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body whitespace-normal break-words\">Research shows that ToM develops in a predictable sequence during early childhood:<\/p>\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body whitespace-normal break-words\"><strong>Ages 2-3:<\/strong> Children understand that people have desires and emotions<\/p>\n<ul class=\"[&amp;:not(:last-child)_ul]:pb-1 [&amp;:not(:last-child)_ol]:pb-1 list-disc space-y-2.5 pl-7\">\n<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words\">They recognize that others may want different things<\/li>\n<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words\">They understand basic emotions in themselves and others<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body whitespace-normal break-words\"><strong>Ages 3-4:<\/strong> Children begin to understand that people have beliefs<\/p>\n<ul class=\"[&amp;:not(:last-child)_ul]:pb-1 [&amp;:not(:last-child)_ol]:pb-1 list-disc space-y-2.5 pl-7\">\n<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words\">They recognize that people can have different knowledge<\/li>\n<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words\">They start to understand that seeing leads to knowing<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body whitespace-normal break-words\"><strong>Ages 4-5:<\/strong> Children develop understanding of false beliefs<\/p>\n<ul class=\"[&amp;:not(:last-child)_ul]:pb-1 [&amp;:not(:last-child)_ol]:pb-1 list-disc space-y-2.5 pl-7\">\n<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words\">They recognize that others can believe something that is not true<\/li>\n<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words\">They understand that people&#8217;s actions are based on their beliefs, even when those beliefs are incorrect<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body whitespace-normal break-words\"><strong>False-belief tasks<\/strong> are useful in determining a child&#8217;s acquisition of theory of mind. These tasks assess whether children understand that others can hold beliefs that differ from reality.<\/p>\n<section class=\"textbox watchIt\">False-belief tasks are useful in determining a child\u2019s acquisition of theory-of-mind (TOM). <br \/>\nTake a look at this <a href=\"http:\/\/openstaxcollege.org\/l\/crayons\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">video clip showing a false-belief task involving a box of crayons<\/a>.<br \/>\n<iframe loading=\"lazy\" src=\"\/\/plugin.3playmedia.com\/show?mf=1793482&amp;p3sdk_version=1.10.1&amp;p=20361&amp;pt=573&amp;video_id=8hLubgpY2_w&amp;video_target=tpm-plugin-j86iu9me-8hLubgpY2_w\" width=\"800px\" height=\"500px\" frameborder=\"0\" marginwidth=\"0px\" marginheight=\"0px\" data-mce-fragment=\"1\"><\/iframe><br \/>\nYou can <a href=\"https:\/\/oerfiles.s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/Psychology\/Transcriptions\/TheFalseBeliefTestTheoryOfMind.txt\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">view the transcript for &#8220;The &#8220;False Belief&#8221; Test: Theory of Mind&#8221; here (opens in new window)<\/a>.<\/section>\n<div>\n<section class=\"textbox tryIt\"><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"ohm11871\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/ohm.one.lumenlearning.com\/multiembedq.php?id=11871&theme=lumen&iframe_resize_id=ohm11871&source=tnh&show_question_numbers\" width=\"100%\" height=\"400\"><\/iframe><\/section>\n<section>\n<h3 class=\"font-claude-response-subheading text-text-100 mt-1 -mb-1.5\">Current Research on Theory of Mind<\/h3>\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body whitespace-normal break-words\">ToM continues to develop well beyond age 5, with children showing increasing sophistication in understanding complex mental states through middle childhood and adolescence (Wellman et al., 2020; Erceg et al., 2025).<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Erceg HG, Dhillon RS, Derksen DG, Mah EY and Bernstein DM (2025) A longitudinal study of theory of mind across the lifespan. Front. Psychol. 16:1549378. doi: 10.3389\/fpsyg.2025.1549378\" id=\"return-footnote-558-1\" href=\"#footnote-558-1\" aria-label=\"Footnote 1\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[1]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body whitespace-normal break-words\"><strong>Individual differences:<\/strong> Several factors influence the rate of ToM development:<\/p>\n<ul class=\"[&amp;:not(:last-child)_ul]:pb-1 [&amp;:not(:last-child)_ol]:pb-1 list-disc space-y-2.5 pl-7\">\n<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words\"><strong>Language abilities:<\/strong> Children with more advanced language skills tend to develop ToM earlier<\/li>\n<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words\"><strong>Sibling relationships:<\/strong> Children with siblings, particularly older siblings, show earlier ToM development<\/li>\n<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words\"><strong>Parent-child conversations:<\/strong> Mothers who talk about thoughts, wants, and feelings promote earlier ToM understanding<\/li>\n<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words\"><strong>Pretend play:<\/strong> Participation in pretend play accelerates ToM development<\/li>\n<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words\"><strong>Cultural context:<\/strong> Children from different cultures may develop aspects of ToM at different rates or in different sequences<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body whitespace-normal break-words\"><strong>Social outcomes:<\/strong> Children with more developed theory of mind tend to be:<\/p>\n<ul class=\"[&amp;:not(:last-child)_ul]:pb-1 [&amp;:not(:last-child)_ol]:pb-1 list-disc space-y-2.5 pl-7\">\n<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words\">Better communicators who can resolve conflicts with friends<\/li>\n<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words\">More popular with peers<\/li>\n<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words\">Rated as more socially competent by teachers<\/li>\n<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words\">Happier in school<\/li>\n<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words\">More advanced in some areas of schoolwork<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body whitespace-normal break-words\">However, well-developed ToM can also be used in antisocial ways, such as teasing, bullying, and lying.<\/p>\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body whitespace-normal break-words\">Recent research using brain imaging has identified that neural sensitivity to others&#8217; belief states in infancy predicts later ToM reasoning in childhood, suggesting biological foundations for this ability (Liu et al., 2025).<\/p>\n<h3 class=\"font-claude-response-heading text-text-100 mt-1 -mb-0.5\">Contemporary Understanding<\/h3>\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body whitespace-normal break-words\">While Piaget&#8217;s preoperational stage provides a valuable framework, modern research suggests some refinements:<\/p>\n<ul class=\"[&amp;:not(:last-child)_ul]:pb-1 [&amp;:not(:last-child)_ol]:pb-1 list-disc space-y-2.5 pl-7\">\n<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words\">Children may be less egocentric than Piaget proposed when tasks are simplified<\/li>\n<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words\">Some conservation understanding may emerge earlier than Piaget suggested<\/li>\n<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words\">ToM development is more gradual and continuous than Piaget&#8217;s stage theory implies<\/li>\n<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words\">Cultural and social factors play significant roles in cognitive development during this period<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body whitespace-normal break-words\">Despite these refinements, Piaget&#8217;s description of preoperational thought captures important differences in how young children think compared to older children and adults.<\/p>\n<\/section>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<hr class=\"before-footnotes clear\" \/><div class=\"footnotes\"><ol><li id=\"footnote-558-1\">Erceg HG, Dhillon RS, Derksen DG, Mah EY and Bernstein DM (2025) A longitudinal study of theory of mind across the lifespan. Front. Psychol. 16:1549378. doi: 10.3389\/fpsyg.2025.1549378 <a href=\"#return-footnote-558-1\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 1\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><\/ol><\/div>","protected":false},"author":20,"menu_order":13,"template":"","meta":{"_candela_citation":"[{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"Lifespan Theories\",\"author\":\"\",\"organization\":\"OpenStax\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/psychology-2e\/pages\/9-2-lifespan-theories\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by\",\"license_terms\":\"Access for free at https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/psychology-2e\/pages\/1-introduction\"},{\"type\":\"copyrighted_video\",\"description\":\"Piaget\\'s mountain task\",\"author\":\"\",\"organization\":\" UofMNCYFC\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/youtu.be\/v4oYOjVDgo0\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"other\",\"license_terms\":\"Standard YouTube License\"},{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"Theory of Mind video\",\"author\":\"007IceWeasel\",\"organization\":\"\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/youtu.be\/8hLubgpY2_w\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"other\",\"license_terms\":\"Standard YouTube License\"},{\"type\":\"copyrighted_video\",\"description\":\"A typical child on Piaget\\'s conservation tasks\",\"author\":\"\",\"organization\":\"munakatay\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/youtu.be\/gnArvcWaH6I\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"arr\",\"license_terms\":\"Standard YouTube License\"}]","pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[],"license":[],"part":545,"module-header":"learn_it","content_attributions":null,"internal_book_links":[],"video_content":null,"cc_video_embed_content":{"cc_scripts":"","media_targets":[]},"try_it_collection":null,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/introductiontopsychology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/558"}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/introductiontopsychology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/introductiontopsychology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/introductiontopsychology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/20"}],"version-history":[{"count":16,"href":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/introductiontopsychology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/558\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":7327,"href":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/introductiontopsychology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/558\/revisions\/7327"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/introductiontopsychology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/545"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/introductiontopsychology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/558\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/introductiontopsychology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=558"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/introductiontopsychology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=558"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/introductiontopsychology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=558"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/introductiontopsychology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=558"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}