{"id":556,"date":"2023-03-03T19:13:19","date_gmt":"2023-03-03T19:13:19","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/introductiontopsychology\/chapter\/reading-childhood\/"},"modified":"2026-02-04T18:41:12","modified_gmt":"2026-02-04T18:41:12","slug":"reading-childhood","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/introductiontopsychology\/chapter\/reading-childhood\/","title":{"raw":"Child Development: Learn It 2\u2014Physical Development in Childhood","rendered":"Child Development: Learn It 2\u2014Physical Development in Childhood"},"content":{"raw":"<h2 data-type=\"title\">Physical Development<\/h2>\r\n<div>\r\n<div class=\"grid-cols-1 grid gap-2.5 [&amp;_&gt;_*]:min-w-0\">\r\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body whitespace-normal break-words\">In infancy, toddlerhood, and early childhood, physical development occurs rapidly. Understanding growth patterns helps caregivers and healthcare providers monitor healthy development.<\/p>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div>\r\n<div class=\"grid-cols-1 grid gap-2.5 [&amp;_&gt;_*]:min-w-0\">\r\n<h3 class=\"font-claude-response-subheading text-text-100 mt-1 -mb-1.5\">Newborn Size and Growth Patterns<\/h3>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div>\r\n<div class=\"grid-cols-1 grid gap-2.5 [&amp;_&gt;_*]:min-w-0\">\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li class=\"font-claude-response-body whitespace-normal break-words\"><strong>At birth:<\/strong> Newborns typically weigh between 5 and 10 pounds, with an average of 7.5 pounds (3.4 kg). Average length is 19.5 inches (49.5 cm).<\/li>\r\n\t<li class=\"font-claude-response-body whitespace-normal break-words\"><strong style=\"font-family: 'Public Sans', -apple-system, BlinkMacSystemFont, 'Segoe UI', Roboto, Oxygen-Sans, Ubuntu, Cantarell, 'Helvetica Neue', sans-serif;\">First year:<\/strong><span style=\"font-family: 'Public Sans', -apple-system, BlinkMacSystemFont, 'Segoe UI', Roboto, Oxygen-Sans, Ubuntu, Cantarell, 'Helvetica Neue', sans-serif;\"> A newborn's weight doubles by 6 months and triples by 12 months. Length increases to 29.5 inches (75 cm) by the first birthday.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li class=\"font-claude-response-body whitespace-normal break-words\"><strong style=\"font-family: 'Public Sans', -apple-system, BlinkMacSystemFont, 'Segoe UI', Roboto, Oxygen-Sans, Ubuntu, Cantarell, 'Helvetica Neue', sans-serif;\">Second year:<\/strong><span style=\"font-family: 'Public Sans', -apple-system, BlinkMacSystemFont, 'Segoe UI', Roboto, Oxygen-Sans, Ubuntu, Cantarell, 'Helvetica Neue', sans-serif;\"> By age 2, weight has quadrupled from birth. A 2-year-old typically weighs between 20 and 40 pounds (9-18 kg) and measures 34.4 inches (87.5 cm) (WHO Multicentre Growth Reference Study Group, 2006).<\/span><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<figure>\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"975\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/ospsych\/m49112\/CNX_Psych_09_04_Growth.jpg#fixme\" alt=\"A collage of four photographs depicting babies is shown. From left to right they get progressively older. The far left photograph is a bundled up sleeping newborn. To the right is a picture of a toddler next to a toy giraffe. To the right is a baby blowing out a single candle. To the far right is a child on a swing set.\" width=\"975\" height=\"244\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/> <strong>Figure 1<\/strong>. Children experience rapid physical changes through infancy and early childhood. (credit \"left\": modification of work by Kerry Ceszyk; credit \"middle-left\": modification of work by Kristi Fausel; credit \"middle-right\": modification of work by \"devinf\"\/Flickr; credit \"right\": modification of work by Rose Spielman)[\/caption]\r\n<\/figure>\r\n<section data-depth=\"1\">\r\n<section data-depth=\"2\">\r\n<div data-type=\"note\" data-label=\"What Do You Think?\">\r\n<div data-type=\"title\">\r\n<div data-type=\"title\">\r\n<h2 class=\"font-claude-response-heading text-text-100 mt-1 -mb-0.5\">Infant Reflexes<\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body whitespace-normal break-words\">Although small, newborns are not helpless. They come equipped with reflexes and sensory capacities that help them interact with the environment from birth.<\/p>\r\n<h3 class=\"font-claude-response-subheading text-text-100 mt-1 -mb-1.5\">What Are Reflexes?<\/h3>\r\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body whitespace-normal break-words\"><strong>Newborn reflexes<\/strong> are inborn automatic responses to particular forms of stimulation. These reflexes help infants survive until they can perform more complex behaviors voluntarily. Present in babies with normally developing brains, most reflexes disappear around 4\u20135 months as the brain matures and voluntary motor control develops.<\/p>\r\n<section class=\"textbox keyTakeaway\">\r\n<h3>key newborn reflexes<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li>\r\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body whitespace-normal break-words\"><strong>Rooting reflex:<\/strong> When you stroke a baby's cheek, they naturally turn their head in that direction and begin to suck. This helps the infant locate a food source.=<\/p>\r\n<\/li>\r\n\t<li>\r\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body whitespace-normal break-words\"><strong>Sucking reflex:<\/strong> Infants automatically make sucking motions when the oral region is stimulated or an object is placed in the mouth. This reflex coordinates with breathing and swallowing for feeding.<\/p>\r\n<\/li>\r\n\t<li>\r\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body whitespace-normal break-words\"><strong>Grasping reflex:<\/strong> When you place your finger in a newborn's palm, the baby automatically grasps it. This palmar grasp appears when anything touches the infant's palm.<\/p>\r\n<\/li>\r\n\t<li>\r\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body whitespace-normal break-words\"><strong>Moro reflex:<\/strong> When infants feel like they're falling (such as when their arms are released after being pulled up), they spread their arms, pull them back in, extend their fingers, and usually cry. This protective response to disrupted body balance develops by 28 weeks gestation and disappears by 6 months.<\/p>\r\n<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/section>\r\n<section class=\"textbox linkToLearning\">Take a few minutes to view this brief <a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=Sv5SsLH70mY\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">video clip illustrating several newborn reflexes<\/a>. If you are interested in learning more about human development in babies, watch <a href=\"http:\/\/www.ted.com\/talks\/alison_gopnik_what_do_babies_think?language=en#t-551802\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">this TED talk by Alison Gopnik<\/a>. Recent discoveries reveal that babies are probably smarter than we think.<\/section>\r\n<section class=\"textbox connectIt\" aria-label=\"Connect It\">\r\n<h3 class=\"font-claude-response-subheading text-text-100 mt-1 -mb-1.5\">Clinical Significance of Reflexes<\/h3>\r\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body whitespace-normal break-words\">Recent research has highlighted the importance of primitive reflexes in assessing neurological development. According to 2023 research, these reflexes serve as important assessment tools in newborns and young infants. The presence and appropriate disappearance of reflexes indicate normal central nervous system development (StatPearls, 2023).<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body whitespace-normal break-words\"><strong>Retained primitive reflexes<\/strong> (when reflexes don't disappear as expected) can indicate developmental concerns. A 2025 study found that non-integrated primitive reflexes in children can lead to motor function issues and psychological challenges. Research shows that 12-week intervention programs can reduce retained reflexes and improve motor and cognitive performance (Frontiers in Psychology, 2025).<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body whitespace-normal break-words\"><strong>Connection to later development:<\/strong> Emerging research suggests that primitive reflexes may influence later skills. For example, retained reflexes have been linked to difficulties with:<\/p>\r\n<ul class=\"[&amp;:not(:last-child)_ul]:pb-1 [&amp;:not(:last-child)_ol]:pb-1 list-disc space-y-2.5 pl-7\">\r\n\t<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words\">Motor skill development<\/li>\r\n\t<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words\">Cognitive processing<\/li>\r\n\t<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words\">Speech and language development<\/li>\r\n\t<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words\">Executive function<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body whitespace-normal break-words\">Healthcare providers use reflex assessment as part of neurological screening, with tools like the Brazelton Neonatal Behavior Assessment Scale evaluating reflex strength alongside environmental responsiveness.<\/p>\r\n<\/section>\r\n<h2 class=\"font-claude-response-heading text-text-100 mt-1 -mb-0.5\">Infant Sensory Abilities<\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body whitespace-normal break-words\">What can young infants see, hear, and smell? Newborn sensory abilities are significant, though not yet fully developed. Many innate preferences facilitate interaction with caregivers.<\/p>\r\n<h3 class=\"font-claude-response-subheading text-text-100 mt-1 -mb-1.5\">Vision<\/h3>\r\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body whitespace-normal break-words\">Vision is the least developed sense at birth, but newborns already show preferences for faces. Babies just a few days old prefer:<\/p>\r\n<ul class=\"[&amp;:not(:last-child)_ul]:pb-1 [&amp;:not(:last-child)_ol]:pb-1 list-disc space-y-2.5 pl-7\">\r\n\t<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words\">Human faces over other visual stimuli<\/li>\r\n\t<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words\">Human voices over non-speech sounds (Vouloumanos &amp; Werker, 2004)<\/li>\r\n\t<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words\">Their mother's voice over a stranger's voice (Mills &amp; Melhuish, 1974)<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body whitespace-normal break-words\"><strong>Supporting research:<\/strong> In one experiment, 3-week-old babies were given pacifiers that played recordings of either their mother's voice or a stranger's voice. When infants heard their mother's voice, they sucked more strongly on the pacifier (Mills &amp; Melhuish, 1974).<\/p>\r\n<h3 class=\"font-claude-response-subheading text-text-100 mt-1 -mb-1.5\">Smell<\/h3>\r\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body whitespace-normal break-words\">Newborns have a strong sense of smell. They can distinguish their own mother's scent from others. In MacFarlane's (1978) study, 1-week-old breastfed babies were placed between two gauze pads\u2014one from a stranger's bra and one from their own mother's bra. More than two-thirds of the babies turned toward their mother's scent.<\/p>\r\n<section class=\"textbox tryIt\">[ohm2_question height=\"300\"]4274[\/ohm2_question]<\/section>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section>\r\n<\/section>\r\n<h2>Growth During the Early Years<\/h2>\r\n<p>During infancy and childhood, growth does not occur at a steady rate (Carel, Lahlou, Roger, &amp; Chaussain, 2004).<\/p>\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li>Growth slows between 4 and 6 years old: During this time children gain 5\u20137 pounds and grow about 2\u20133 inches per year.<\/li>\r\n\t<li>Once girls reach 8\u20139 years old, their growth rate outpaces that of boys due to a pubertal growth spurt. This growth spurt continues until around 12 years old, coinciding with the start of the menstrual cycle.\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li>By 10 years old, the average girl weighs 88 pounds, and the average boy weighs 85 pounds.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h3 class=\"font-claude-response-subheading text-text-100 mt-1 -mb-1.5\">Brain Development<\/h3>\r\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body whitespace-normal break-words\">We are born with all the brain cells we will ever have\u2014approximately 100\u2013200 billion neurons (nerve cells) whose function is to store and transmit information (Huttenlocher &amp; Dabholkar, 1997). However, the nervous system continues to grow and develop throughout childhood.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body whitespace-normal break-words\">Brain size increases rapidly:<\/p>\r\n<ul class=\"[&amp;:not(:last-child)_ul]:pb-1 [&amp;:not(:last-child)_ol]:pb-1 list-disc space-y-2.5 pl-7\">\r\n\t<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words\"><strong>Age 2:<\/strong> Brain is 55% of adult size<\/li>\r\n\t<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words\"><strong>Age 6:<\/strong> Brain is about 90% of adult size (Tanner, 1978)<\/li>\r\n\t<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words\"><strong style=\"font-family: 'Public Sans', -apple-system, BlinkMacSystemFont, 'Segoe UI', Roboto, Oxygen-Sans, Ubuntu, Cantarell, 'Helvetica Neue', sans-serif;\">Early childhood (ages 3\u20136):<\/strong><span style=\"font-family: 'Public Sans', -apple-system, BlinkMacSystemFont, 'Segoe UI', Roboto, Oxygen-Sans, Ubuntu, Cantarell, 'Helvetica Neue', sans-serif;\"> The frontal lobes grow rapidly. These areas are associated with planning, reasoning, memory, and impulse control. By school age, children are developmentally capable of controlling their attention and behavior.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words\"><strong style=\"font-family: 'Public Sans', -apple-system, BlinkMacSystemFont, 'Segoe UI', Roboto, Oxygen-Sans, Ubuntu, Cantarell, 'Helvetica Neue', sans-serif;\">Elementary school years:<\/strong><span style=\"font-family: 'Public Sans', -apple-system, BlinkMacSystemFont, 'Segoe UI', Roboto, Oxygen-Sans, Ubuntu, Cantarell, 'Helvetica Neue', sans-serif;\"> The frontal, temporal, occipital, and parietal lobes all grow. Brain growth spurts tend to follow Piaget's sequence of cognitive development, so significant changes in neural functioning account for cognitive advances (Kolb &amp; Whishaw, 2009; Overman, Bachevalier, Turner, &amp; Peuster, 1992).<\/span><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body whitespace-normal break-words\">Blooming and then pruning occur.<\/p>\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li class=\"font-claude-response-body whitespace-normal break-words\"><strong>Blooming:<\/strong> During infancy and toddlerhood, each neural pathway forms thousands of new connections. This period of rapid neural growth occurs during the first few years of life.<\/li>\r\n\t<li class=\"font-claude-response-body whitespace-normal break-words\"><strong>Pruning:<\/strong> Following blooming, neural connections are reduced through pruning. This process helps the brain function more efficiently, allowing mastery of more complex skills (Hutchinson, 2011). Pruning continues through childhood and into adolescence in various brain areas.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<section class=\"textbox tryIt\">[ohm2_question height=\"300\"]4275[\/ohm2_question]<\/section>\r\n<h2>Motor Development<\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body whitespace-normal break-words\">Motor development occurs in an orderly sequence as infants move from reflexive reactions (such as sucking and rooting) to more advanced motor functioning. Babies first learn to hold their heads up, then sit with assistance, then sit unassisted, followed later by crawling and walking.<\/p>\r\n<section class=\"textbox keyTakeaway\">\r\n<h3>motor skills<\/h3>\r\n<p><strong>Motor skills<\/strong> refer to our ability to move our bodies and manipulate objects.\u00a0<br \/>\r\n<br \/>\r\n<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body whitespace-normal break-words\"><strong>Fine motor skills<\/strong> focus on small muscles in fingers, toes, and eyes. They enable coordination of small actions such as:<\/p>\r\n<ul class=\"[&amp;:not(:last-child)_ul]:pb-1 [&amp;:not(:last-child)_ol]:pb-1 list-disc space-y-2.5 pl-7\">\r\n\t<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words\">Grasping a toy<\/li>\r\n\t<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words\">Writing with a pencil<\/li>\r\n\t<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words\">Using a spoon<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body whitespace-normal break-words\"><strong>Gross motor skills<\/strong> focus on large muscle groups controlling arms and legs. They involve larger movements such as:<\/p>\r\n<ul class=\"[&amp;:not(:last-child)_ul]:pb-1 [&amp;:not(:last-child)_ol]:pb-1 list-disc space-y-2.5 pl-7\">\r\n\t<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words\">Balancing<\/li>\r\n\t<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words\">Running<\/li>\r\n\t<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words\">Jumping<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/section>\r\n<h3>Average Milestones<\/h3>\r\n<p>There are certain developmental milestones that young children typically achieve as they develop (Table 1). For each milestone, there is an average age, as well as a range of ages in which the milestone should be reached. An example of a developmental milestone is sitting. For example:<\/p>\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li>On average, most babies sit alone at 7 months old. Sitting involves both coordination and muscle strength, and 90% of babies achieve this milestone between 5 and 9 months old.<\/li>\r\n\t<li>On average, babies are able to hold up their heads at 6 weeks old, and 90% of babies achieve this between 3 weeks and 4 months old.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<p>If a child displays delays on several milestones, parents or caregivers should discuss this with the child's pediatrician. Some developmental delays can be identified and addressed through early intervention.<\/p>\r\n<table summary=\"A five column table describes developmental milestones from the ages of two through five. From left to right, the columns are labeled \u201cage (years), physical, personal\/social, language, and cognitive.\u201d The contents of the first row, respectively, are \u201c2; kicks a ball, walks up and down stairs; plays alongside other children, copies adults; points to objects when named, puts 2-4 words together in a sentence; and sorts shapes and colors, follows 2-step instructions.\u201d The second row contains \u201c3; climbs and runs, pedals tricycle; takes turns, expresses many emotions, dresses self; names familiar things, uses pronouns; and plays make believe, works toys with parts (levers, handles).\u201d The third row contains \u201c4; catches balls, uses scissors; prefers social play to solo play, knows likes and interests; knows songs and rhymes by memory; and names colors and numbers, begins writing letters.\u201d The fourth row contains \u201c5; hops and swings, uses fork and spoon; distinguishes real from pretend, likes to please friends; speaks clearly, uses full sentences; and counts to 10 or higher, prints some letters and copies basic shapes.\u201d\">\r\n<caption>Table 1. Developmental Milestones, Ages 2\u20135 Years<\/caption>\r\n<thead>\r\n<tr>\r\n<th scope=\"col\">Age (years)<\/th>\r\n<th scope=\"col\">Physical<\/th>\r\n<th scope=\"col\">Personal\/Social<\/th>\r\n<th scope=\"col\">Language<\/th>\r\n<th scope=\"col\">Cognitive<\/th>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/thead>\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>2<\/td>\r\n<td>Kicks a ball; walks up and down stairs<\/td>\r\n<td>Plays alongside other children; copies adults<\/td>\r\n<td>Points to objects when named; puts 2\u20134 words together in a sentence<\/td>\r\n<td>Sorts shapes and colors; follows 2-step instructions<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>3<\/td>\r\n<td>Climbs and runs; pedals tricycle<\/td>\r\n<td>Takes turns; expresses many emotions; dresses self<\/td>\r\n<td>Names familiar things; uses pronouns<\/td>\r\n<td>Plays make-believe; works toys with parts (levers, handles)<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>4<\/td>\r\n<td>Catches balls; uses scissors<\/td>\r\n<td>Prefers social play to solo play; knows likes and interests<\/td>\r\n<td>Knows songs and rhymes by memory<\/td>\r\n<td>Names colors and numbers; begins writing letters<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>5<\/td>\r\n<td>Hops and swings; uses fork and spoon<\/td>\r\n<td>Distinguishes real from pretend; likes to please friends<\/td>\r\n<td>Speaks clearly; uses full sentences<\/td>\r\n<td>Counts to 10 or higher; prints some letters and copies basic shapes<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<div>\r\n<section class=\"textbox tryIt\">[ohm2_question height=\"400\"]4279[\/ohm2_question]<\/section>\r\n<section class=\"textbox connectIt\">\r\n<h3><img class=\"wp-image-3860 alignright\" src=\"https:\/\/content-cdn.one.lumenlearning.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/14\/2023\/03\/29153903\/Screenshot-2023-05-29-at-11.38.19-AM.png\" alt=\"APA Integrative themes with theme F highlighted\u2014applying psychological principles can change our lives, organizations, and communities in positive ways.\" width=\"516\" height=\"135\" \/>The Importance of Play and Recess<\/h3>\r\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body whitespace-normal break-words\">According to the American Academy of Pediatrics, unstructured play is integral to child development. It builds creativity, problem-solving skills, and social relationships. Outdoor play offers additional benefits by allowing children to directly experience the world around them. Through outdoor play, children may collect objects that spark lifelong interests, increase their exercise levels, and develop greater enjoyment of physical activity\u2014all supporting healthy heart and brain development.[footnote]Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2025). Preventing childhood obesity: 6 things families can do. https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/obesity\/family-action\/index.html[\/footnote]<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body whitespace-normal break-words\">Physical activity is crucial for preventing childhood obesity, yet recent data reveals concerning trends. About 1 in 5 American children (19.7%) have obesity (CDC, 2022). This represents an increase from earlier years and affects millions of children nationwide.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body whitespace-normal break-words\">Childhood obesity results from multiple factors, but two stand out:<\/p>\r\n<ul class=\"[&amp;:not(:last-child)_ul]:pb-1 [&amp;:not(:last-child)_ol]:pb-1 list-disc space-y-2.5 pl-7\">\r\n\t<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words\">Reduced physical activity: Less than 20% of the world's adolescent population is sufficiently physically active.[footnote]Wyszy\u0144ska, J., Ring-Dimitriou, S., Thivel, D., Weghuber, D., Hadjipanayis, A., Grossman, Z., ... &amp; Mazur, A. (2020). Physical activity in the prevention of childhood obesity: The position of the European Childhood Obesity Group and the European Academy of Pediatrics. Frontiers in Pediatrics, 8, 535705.[\/footnote]\r\n\r\n<ul class=\"[&amp;:not(:last-child)_ul]:pb-1 [&amp;:not(:last-child)_ol]:pb-1 list-disc space-y-2.5 pl-7\">\r\n\t<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words\">Only 16% of children walk or bike to school today compared with 42% in the late 1960s.<\/li>\r\n\t<li>Recess and unstructured playtime has declined. As of the 2024-2025 school year, only 10 states require a minimum amount of daily recess for elementary schools. Requirements vary widely\u2014Arkansas requires the most at 40 minutes daily, while Louisiana requires only 15 minutes. Most U.S. elementary schools (83%) provide daily recess, but only 21% offer two periods of daily recess.[footnote]Howie, E. K., Harden, S. M., Barr-Anderson, D. J., &amp; Long, C. R. (2025). Elementary school compliance with a state recess minimum requirement by racial and geographic factors: a cross-sectional study. The international journal of behavioral nutrition and physical activity, 22(1), 37. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s12966-025-01730-x[\/footnote]<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n\t<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words\">Poor nutrition: Easy access to calorie-dense, nutrient-poor foods creates an imbalance between energy intake and expenditure<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body whitespace-normal break-words\">Children with obesity face elevated risks for numerous health problems:<\/p>\r\n<ul class=\"[&amp;:not(:last-child)_ul]:pb-1 [&amp;:not(:last-child)_ol]:pb-1 list-disc space-y-2.5 pl-7\">\r\n\t<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words\">Physical health: Asthma, sleep apnea, bone and joint problems, type 2 diabetes, and high blood pressure<\/li>\r\n\t<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words\">Mental health: Depression and anxiety.\u00a0Childhood obesity is also linked to abnormalities in brain structure, particularly in regions associated with executive functioning. These brain areas control cognitive flexibility, inhibitory control, planning, working memory, and decision-making\u2014all essential for daily activities, academic success, and social relationships (Mora-Gonzalez et al., 2019).<\/li>\r\n\t<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words\">Long-term risks: Obesity typically persists into adulthood, increasing risks for cardiovascular disease, cancer, and premature death<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body whitespace-normal break-words\">Despite evidence showing the importance of physical activity and play, several barriers prevent children from getting adequate exercise, including overscheded structured activities and policies that have reduced or eliminated recess to allocate more time for test preparation.<\/p>\r\n<p>A 2022 survey found that 86% of teachers in the U.S. have decreased or taken away recess as punishment for behavior. A 2022 longitudinal study found that withholding all or part of recess to punish misbehavior or finish classwork is directly related to increased sedentary behavior and decreased physical activity\u2014the opposite of what children need for healthy development.<\/p>\r\n<p><strong>Critical thinking question:<\/strong> Do you agree with these practices? Why or why not? Consider how eliminating recess might affect children's physical development, cognitive functioning, attention spans, and overall well-being. What alternative approaches might schools take to support both academic achievement and physical health?<\/p>\r\n<\/section>\r\n<\/div>","rendered":"<h2 data-type=\"title\">Physical Development<\/h2>\n<div>\n<div class=\"grid-cols-1 grid gap-2.5 [&amp;_&gt;_*]:min-w-0\">\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body whitespace-normal break-words\">In infancy, toddlerhood, and early childhood, physical development occurs rapidly. Understanding growth patterns helps caregivers and healthcare providers monitor healthy development.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div>\n<div class=\"grid-cols-1 grid gap-2.5 [&amp;_&gt;_*]:min-w-0\">\n<h3 class=\"font-claude-response-subheading text-text-100 mt-1 -mb-1.5\">Newborn Size and Growth Patterns<\/h3>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div>\n<div class=\"grid-cols-1 grid gap-2.5 [&amp;_&gt;_*]:min-w-0\">\n<ul>\n<li class=\"font-claude-response-body whitespace-normal break-words\"><strong>At birth:<\/strong> Newborns typically weigh between 5 and 10 pounds, with an average of 7.5 pounds (3.4 kg). Average length is 19.5 inches (49.5 cm).<\/li>\n<li class=\"font-claude-response-body whitespace-normal break-words\"><strong style=\"font-family: 'Public Sans', -apple-system, BlinkMacSystemFont, 'Segoe UI', Roboto, Oxygen-Sans, Ubuntu, Cantarell, 'Helvetica Neue', sans-serif;\">First year:<\/strong><span style=\"font-family: 'Public Sans', -apple-system, BlinkMacSystemFont, 'Segoe UI', Roboto, Oxygen-Sans, Ubuntu, Cantarell, 'Helvetica Neue', sans-serif;\"> A newborn&#8217;s weight doubles by 6 months and triples by 12 months. Length increases to 29.5 inches (75 cm) by the first birthday.<\/span><\/li>\n<li class=\"font-claude-response-body whitespace-normal break-words\"><strong style=\"font-family: 'Public Sans', -apple-system, BlinkMacSystemFont, 'Segoe UI', Roboto, Oxygen-Sans, Ubuntu, Cantarell, 'Helvetica Neue', sans-serif;\">Second year:<\/strong><span style=\"font-family: 'Public Sans', -apple-system, BlinkMacSystemFont, 'Segoe UI', Roboto, Oxygen-Sans, Ubuntu, Cantarell, 'Helvetica Neue', sans-serif;\"> By age 2, weight has quadrupled from birth. A 2-year-old typically weighs between 20 and 40 pounds (9-18 kg) and measures 34.4 inches (87.5 cm) (WHO Multicentre Growth Reference Study Group, 2006).<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<figure>\n<figure style=\"width: 975px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/ospsych\/m49112\/CNX_Psych_09_04_Growth.jpg#fixme\" alt=\"A collage of four photographs depicting babies is shown. From left to right they get progressively older. The far left photograph is a bundled up sleeping newborn. To the right is a picture of a toddler next to a toy giraffe. To the right is a baby blowing out a single candle. To the far right is a child on a swing set.\" width=\"975\" height=\"244\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 1<\/strong>. Children experience rapid physical changes through infancy and early childhood. (credit &#8220;left&#8221;: modification of work by Kerry Ceszyk; credit &#8220;middle-left&#8221;: modification of work by Kristi Fausel; credit &#8220;middle-right&#8221;: modification of work by &#8220;devinf&#8221;\/Flickr; credit &#8220;right&#8221;: modification of work by Rose Spielman)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/figure>\n<section data-depth=\"1\">\n<section data-depth=\"2\">\n<div data-type=\"note\" data-label=\"What Do You Think?\">\n<div data-type=\"title\">\n<div data-type=\"title\">\n<h2 class=\"font-claude-response-heading text-text-100 mt-1 -mb-0.5\">Infant Reflexes<\/h2>\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body whitespace-normal break-words\">Although small, newborns are not helpless. They come equipped with reflexes and sensory capacities that help them interact with the environment from birth.<\/p>\n<h3 class=\"font-claude-response-subheading text-text-100 mt-1 -mb-1.5\">What Are Reflexes?<\/h3>\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body whitespace-normal break-words\"><strong>Newborn reflexes<\/strong> are inborn automatic responses to particular forms of stimulation. These reflexes help infants survive until they can perform more complex behaviors voluntarily. Present in babies with normally developing brains, most reflexes disappear around 4\u20135 months as the brain matures and voluntary motor control develops.<\/p>\n<section class=\"textbox keyTakeaway\">\n<h3>key newborn reflexes<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body whitespace-normal break-words\"><strong>Rooting reflex:<\/strong> When you stroke a baby&#8217;s cheek, they naturally turn their head in that direction and begin to suck. This helps the infant locate a food source.=<\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body whitespace-normal break-words\"><strong>Sucking reflex:<\/strong> Infants automatically make sucking motions when the oral region is stimulated or an object is placed in the mouth. This reflex coordinates with breathing and swallowing for feeding.<\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body whitespace-normal break-words\"><strong>Grasping reflex:<\/strong> When you place your finger in a newborn&#8217;s palm, the baby automatically grasps it. This palmar grasp appears when anything touches the infant&#8217;s palm.<\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li>\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body whitespace-normal break-words\"><strong>Moro reflex:<\/strong> When infants feel like they&#8217;re falling (such as when their arms are released after being pulled up), they spread their arms, pull them back in, extend their fingers, and usually cry. This protective response to disrupted body balance develops by 28 weeks gestation and disappears by 6 months.<\/p>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/section>\n<section class=\"textbox linkToLearning\">Take a few minutes to view this brief <a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=Sv5SsLH70mY\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">video clip illustrating several newborn reflexes<\/a>. If you are interested in learning more about human development in babies, watch <a href=\"http:\/\/www.ted.com\/talks\/alison_gopnik_what_do_babies_think?language=en#t-551802\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">this TED talk by Alison Gopnik<\/a>. Recent discoveries reveal that babies are probably smarter than we think.<\/section>\n<section class=\"textbox connectIt\" aria-label=\"Connect It\">\n<h3 class=\"font-claude-response-subheading text-text-100 mt-1 -mb-1.5\">Clinical Significance of Reflexes<\/h3>\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body whitespace-normal break-words\">Recent research has highlighted the importance of primitive reflexes in assessing neurological development. According to 2023 research, these reflexes serve as important assessment tools in newborns and young infants. The presence and appropriate disappearance of reflexes indicate normal central nervous system development (StatPearls, 2023).<\/p>\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body whitespace-normal break-words\"><strong>Retained primitive reflexes<\/strong> (when reflexes don&#8217;t disappear as expected) can indicate developmental concerns. A 2025 study found that non-integrated primitive reflexes in children can lead to motor function issues and psychological challenges. Research shows that 12-week intervention programs can reduce retained reflexes and improve motor and cognitive performance (Frontiers in Psychology, 2025).<\/p>\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body whitespace-normal break-words\"><strong>Connection to later development:<\/strong> Emerging research suggests that primitive reflexes may influence later skills. For example, retained reflexes have been linked to difficulties with:<\/p>\n<ul class=\"[&amp;:not(:last-child)_ul]:pb-1 [&amp;:not(:last-child)_ol]:pb-1 list-disc space-y-2.5 pl-7\">\n<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words\">Motor skill development<\/li>\n<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words\">Cognitive processing<\/li>\n<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words\">Speech and language development<\/li>\n<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words\">Executive function<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body whitespace-normal break-words\">Healthcare providers use reflex assessment as part of neurological screening, with tools like the Brazelton Neonatal Behavior Assessment Scale evaluating reflex strength alongside environmental responsiveness.<\/p>\n<\/section>\n<h2 class=\"font-claude-response-heading text-text-100 mt-1 -mb-0.5\">Infant Sensory Abilities<\/h2>\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body whitespace-normal break-words\">What can young infants see, hear, and smell? Newborn sensory abilities are significant, though not yet fully developed. Many innate preferences facilitate interaction with caregivers.<\/p>\n<h3 class=\"font-claude-response-subheading text-text-100 mt-1 -mb-1.5\">Vision<\/h3>\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body whitespace-normal break-words\">Vision is the least developed sense at birth, but newborns already show preferences for faces. Babies just a few days old prefer:<\/p>\n<ul class=\"[&amp;:not(:last-child)_ul]:pb-1 [&amp;:not(:last-child)_ol]:pb-1 list-disc space-y-2.5 pl-7\">\n<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words\">Human faces over other visual stimuli<\/li>\n<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words\">Human voices over non-speech sounds (Vouloumanos &amp; Werker, 2004)<\/li>\n<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words\">Their mother&#8217;s voice over a stranger&#8217;s voice (Mills &amp; Melhuish, 1974)<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body whitespace-normal break-words\"><strong>Supporting research:<\/strong> In one experiment, 3-week-old babies were given pacifiers that played recordings of either their mother&#8217;s voice or a stranger&#8217;s voice. When infants heard their mother&#8217;s voice, they sucked more strongly on the pacifier (Mills &amp; Melhuish, 1974).<\/p>\n<h3 class=\"font-claude-response-subheading text-text-100 mt-1 -mb-1.5\">Smell<\/h3>\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body whitespace-normal break-words\">Newborns have a strong sense of smell. They can distinguish their own mother&#8217;s scent from others. In MacFarlane&#8217;s (1978) study, 1-week-old breastfed babies were placed between two gauze pads\u2014one from a stranger&#8217;s bra and one from their own mother&#8217;s bra. More than two-thirds of the babies turned toward their mother&#8217;s scent.<\/p>\n<section class=\"textbox tryIt\"><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"ohm4274\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/ohm.one.lumenlearning.com\/multiembedq.php?id=4274&theme=lumen&iframe_resize_id=ohm4274&source=tnh&show_question_numbers\" width=\"100%\" height=\"300\"><\/iframe><\/section>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<\/section>\n<h2>Growth During the Early Years<\/h2>\n<p>During infancy and childhood, growth does not occur at a steady rate (Carel, Lahlou, Roger, &amp; Chaussain, 2004).<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Growth slows between 4 and 6 years old: During this time children gain 5\u20137 pounds and grow about 2\u20133 inches per year.<\/li>\n<li>Once girls reach 8\u20139 years old, their growth rate outpaces that of boys due to a pubertal growth spurt. This growth spurt continues until around 12 years old, coinciding with the start of the menstrual cycle.\n<ul>\n<li>By 10 years old, the average girl weighs 88 pounds, and the average boy weighs 85 pounds.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h3 class=\"font-claude-response-subheading text-text-100 mt-1 -mb-1.5\">Brain Development<\/h3>\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body whitespace-normal break-words\">We are born with all the brain cells we will ever have\u2014approximately 100\u2013200 billion neurons (nerve cells) whose function is to store and transmit information (Huttenlocher &amp; Dabholkar, 1997). However, the nervous system continues to grow and develop throughout childhood.<\/p>\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body whitespace-normal break-words\">Brain size increases rapidly:<\/p>\n<ul class=\"[&amp;:not(:last-child)_ul]:pb-1 [&amp;:not(:last-child)_ol]:pb-1 list-disc space-y-2.5 pl-7\">\n<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words\"><strong>Age 2:<\/strong> Brain is 55% of adult size<\/li>\n<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words\"><strong>Age 6:<\/strong> Brain is about 90% of adult size (Tanner, 1978)<\/li>\n<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words\"><strong style=\"font-family: 'Public Sans', -apple-system, BlinkMacSystemFont, 'Segoe UI', Roboto, Oxygen-Sans, Ubuntu, Cantarell, 'Helvetica Neue', sans-serif;\">Early childhood (ages 3\u20136):<\/strong><span style=\"font-family: 'Public Sans', -apple-system, BlinkMacSystemFont, 'Segoe UI', Roboto, Oxygen-Sans, Ubuntu, Cantarell, 'Helvetica Neue', sans-serif;\"> The frontal lobes grow rapidly. These areas are associated with planning, reasoning, memory, and impulse control. By school age, children are developmentally capable of controlling their attention and behavior.<\/span><\/li>\n<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words\"><strong style=\"font-family: 'Public Sans', -apple-system, BlinkMacSystemFont, 'Segoe UI', Roboto, Oxygen-Sans, Ubuntu, Cantarell, 'Helvetica Neue', sans-serif;\">Elementary school years:<\/strong><span style=\"font-family: 'Public Sans', -apple-system, BlinkMacSystemFont, 'Segoe UI', Roboto, Oxygen-Sans, Ubuntu, Cantarell, 'Helvetica Neue', sans-serif;\"> The frontal, temporal, occipital, and parietal lobes all grow. Brain growth spurts tend to follow Piaget&#8217;s sequence of cognitive development, so significant changes in neural functioning account for cognitive advances (Kolb &amp; Whishaw, 2009; Overman, Bachevalier, Turner, &amp; Peuster, 1992).<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body whitespace-normal break-words\">Blooming and then pruning occur.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li class=\"font-claude-response-body whitespace-normal break-words\"><strong>Blooming:<\/strong> During infancy and toddlerhood, each neural pathway forms thousands of new connections. This period of rapid neural growth occurs during the first few years of life.<\/li>\n<li class=\"font-claude-response-body whitespace-normal break-words\"><strong>Pruning:<\/strong> Following blooming, neural connections are reduced through pruning. This process helps the brain function more efficiently, allowing mastery of more complex skills (Hutchinson, 2011). Pruning continues through childhood and into adolescence in various brain areas.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<section class=\"textbox tryIt\"><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"ohm4275\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/ohm.one.lumenlearning.com\/multiembedq.php?id=4275&theme=lumen&iframe_resize_id=ohm4275&source=tnh&show_question_numbers\" width=\"100%\" height=\"300\"><\/iframe><\/section>\n<h2>Motor Development<\/h2>\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body whitespace-normal break-words\">Motor development occurs in an orderly sequence as infants move from reflexive reactions (such as sucking and rooting) to more advanced motor functioning. Babies first learn to hold their heads up, then sit with assistance, then sit unassisted, followed later by crawling and walking.<\/p>\n<section class=\"textbox keyTakeaway\">\n<h3>motor skills<\/h3>\n<p><strong>Motor skills<\/strong> refer to our ability to move our bodies and manipulate objects.\u00a0<\/p>\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body whitespace-normal break-words\"><strong>Fine motor skills<\/strong> focus on small muscles in fingers, toes, and eyes. They enable coordination of small actions such as:<\/p>\n<ul class=\"[&amp;:not(:last-child)_ul]:pb-1 [&amp;:not(:last-child)_ol]:pb-1 list-disc space-y-2.5 pl-7\">\n<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words\">Grasping a toy<\/li>\n<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words\">Writing with a pencil<\/li>\n<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words\">Using a spoon<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body whitespace-normal break-words\"><strong>Gross motor skills<\/strong> focus on large muscle groups controlling arms and legs. They involve larger movements such as:<\/p>\n<ul class=\"[&amp;:not(:last-child)_ul]:pb-1 [&amp;:not(:last-child)_ol]:pb-1 list-disc space-y-2.5 pl-7\">\n<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words\">Balancing<\/li>\n<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words\">Running<\/li>\n<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words\">Jumping<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/section>\n<h3>Average Milestones<\/h3>\n<p>There are certain developmental milestones that young children typically achieve as they develop (Table 1). For each milestone, there is an average age, as well as a range of ages in which the milestone should be reached. An example of a developmental milestone is sitting. For example:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>On average, most babies sit alone at 7 months old. Sitting involves both coordination and muscle strength, and 90% of babies achieve this milestone between 5 and 9 months old.<\/li>\n<li>On average, babies are able to hold up their heads at 6 weeks old, and 90% of babies achieve this between 3 weeks and 4 months old.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>If a child displays delays on several milestones, parents or caregivers should discuss this with the child&#8217;s pediatrician. Some developmental delays can be identified and addressed through early intervention.<\/p>\n<table summary=\"A five column table describes developmental milestones from the ages of two through five. From left to right, the columns are labeled \u201cage (years), physical, personal\/social, language, and cognitive.\u201d The contents of the first row, respectively, are \u201c2; kicks a ball, walks up and down stairs; plays alongside other children, copies adults; points to objects when named, puts 2-4 words together in a sentence; and sorts shapes and colors, follows 2-step instructions.\u201d The second row contains \u201c3; climbs and runs, pedals tricycle; takes turns, expresses many emotions, dresses self; names familiar things, uses pronouns; and plays make believe, works toys with parts (levers, handles).\u201d The third row contains \u201c4; catches balls, uses scissors; prefers social play to solo play, knows likes and interests; knows songs and rhymes by memory; and names colors and numbers, begins writing letters.\u201d The fourth row contains \u201c5; hops and swings, uses fork and spoon; distinguishes real from pretend, likes to please friends; speaks clearly, uses full sentences; and counts to 10 or higher, prints some letters and copies basic shapes.\u201d\">\n<caption>Table 1. Developmental Milestones, Ages 2\u20135 Years<\/caption>\n<thead>\n<tr>\n<th scope=\"col\">Age (years)<\/th>\n<th scope=\"col\">Physical<\/th>\n<th scope=\"col\">Personal\/Social<\/th>\n<th scope=\"col\">Language<\/th>\n<th scope=\"col\">Cognitive<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td>2<\/td>\n<td>Kicks a ball; walks up and down stairs<\/td>\n<td>Plays alongside other children; copies adults<\/td>\n<td>Points to objects when named; puts 2\u20134 words together in a sentence<\/td>\n<td>Sorts shapes and colors; follows 2-step instructions<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>3<\/td>\n<td>Climbs and runs; pedals tricycle<\/td>\n<td>Takes turns; expresses many emotions; dresses self<\/td>\n<td>Names familiar things; uses pronouns<\/td>\n<td>Plays make-believe; works toys with parts (levers, handles)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>4<\/td>\n<td>Catches balls; uses scissors<\/td>\n<td>Prefers social play to solo play; knows likes and interests<\/td>\n<td>Knows songs and rhymes by memory<\/td>\n<td>Names colors and numbers; begins writing letters<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>5<\/td>\n<td>Hops and swings; uses fork and spoon<\/td>\n<td>Distinguishes real from pretend; likes to please friends<\/td>\n<td>Speaks clearly; uses full sentences<\/td>\n<td>Counts to 10 or higher; prints some letters and copies basic shapes<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<div>\n<section class=\"textbox tryIt\"><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"ohm4279\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/ohm.one.lumenlearning.com\/multiembedq.php?id=4279&theme=lumen&iframe_resize_id=ohm4279&source=tnh&show_question_numbers\" width=\"100%\" height=\"400\"><\/iframe><\/section>\n<section class=\"textbox connectIt\">\n<h3><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-3860 alignright\" src=\"https:\/\/content-cdn.one.lumenlearning.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/14\/2023\/03\/29153903\/Screenshot-2023-05-29-at-11.38.19-AM.png\" alt=\"APA Integrative themes with theme F highlighted\u2014applying psychological principles can change our lives, organizations, and communities in positive ways.\" width=\"516\" height=\"135\" srcset=\"https:\/\/content-cdn.one.lumenlearning.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/14\/2023\/03\/29153903\/Screenshot-2023-05-29-at-11.38.19-AM.png 1312w, https:\/\/content-cdn.one.lumenlearning.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/14\/2023\/03\/29153903\/Screenshot-2023-05-29-at-11.38.19-AM-300x79.png 300w, https:\/\/content-cdn.one.lumenlearning.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/14\/2023\/03\/29153903\/Screenshot-2023-05-29-at-11.38.19-AM-1024x268.png 1024w, https:\/\/content-cdn.one.lumenlearning.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/14\/2023\/03\/29153903\/Screenshot-2023-05-29-at-11.38.19-AM-768x201.png 768w, https:\/\/content-cdn.one.lumenlearning.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/14\/2023\/03\/29153903\/Screenshot-2023-05-29-at-11.38.19-AM-1200x315.png 1200w, https:\/\/content-cdn.one.lumenlearning.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/14\/2023\/03\/29153903\/Screenshot-2023-05-29-at-11.38.19-AM-65x17.png 65w, https:\/\/content-cdn.one.lumenlearning.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/14\/2023\/03\/29153903\/Screenshot-2023-05-29-at-11.38.19-AM-225x59.png 225w, https:\/\/content-cdn.one.lumenlearning.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/14\/2023\/03\/29153903\/Screenshot-2023-05-29-at-11.38.19-AM-350x92.png 350w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 516px) 100vw, 516px\" \/>The Importance of Play and Recess<\/h3>\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body whitespace-normal break-words\">According to the American Academy of Pediatrics, unstructured play is integral to child development. It builds creativity, problem-solving skills, and social relationships. Outdoor play offers additional benefits by allowing children to directly experience the world around them. Through outdoor play, children may collect objects that spark lifelong interests, increase their exercise levels, and develop greater enjoyment of physical activity\u2014all supporting healthy heart and brain development.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2025). Preventing childhood obesity: 6 things families can do. https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/obesity\/family-action\/index.html\" id=\"return-footnote-556-1\" href=\"#footnote-556-1\" aria-label=\"Footnote 1\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[1]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body whitespace-normal break-words\">Physical activity is crucial for preventing childhood obesity, yet recent data reveals concerning trends. About 1 in 5 American children (19.7%) have obesity (CDC, 2022). This represents an increase from earlier years and affects millions of children nationwide.<\/p>\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body whitespace-normal break-words\">Childhood obesity results from multiple factors, but two stand out:<\/p>\n<ul class=\"[&amp;:not(:last-child)_ul]:pb-1 [&amp;:not(:last-child)_ol]:pb-1 list-disc space-y-2.5 pl-7\">\n<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words\">Reduced physical activity: Less than 20% of the world&#8217;s adolescent population is sufficiently physically active.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Wyszy\u0144ska, J., Ring-Dimitriou, S., Thivel, D., Weghuber, D., Hadjipanayis, A., Grossman, Z., ... &amp; Mazur, A. (2020). Physical activity in the prevention of childhood obesity: The position of the European Childhood Obesity Group and the European Academy of Pediatrics. Frontiers in Pediatrics, 8, 535705.\" id=\"return-footnote-556-2\" href=\"#footnote-556-2\" aria-label=\"Footnote 2\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[2]<\/sup><\/a>\n<ul class=\"[&amp;:not(:last-child)_ul]:pb-1 [&amp;:not(:last-child)_ol]:pb-1 list-disc space-y-2.5 pl-7\">\n<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words\">Only 16% of children walk or bike to school today compared with 42% in the late 1960s.<\/li>\n<li>Recess and unstructured playtime has declined. As of the 2024-2025 school year, only 10 states require a minimum amount of daily recess for elementary schools. Requirements vary widely\u2014Arkansas requires the most at 40 minutes daily, while Louisiana requires only 15 minutes. Most U.S. elementary schools (83%) provide daily recess, but only 21% offer two periods of daily recess.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Howie, E. K., Harden, S. M., Barr-Anderson, D. J., &amp; Long, C. R. (2025). Elementary school compliance with a state recess minimum requirement by racial and geographic factors: a cross-sectional study. The international journal of behavioral nutrition and physical activity, 22(1), 37. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s12966-025-01730-x\" id=\"return-footnote-556-3\" href=\"#footnote-556-3\" aria-label=\"Footnote 3\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[3]<\/sup><\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words\">Poor nutrition: Easy access to calorie-dense, nutrient-poor foods creates an imbalance between energy intake and expenditure<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body whitespace-normal break-words\">Children with obesity face elevated risks for numerous health problems:<\/p>\n<ul class=\"[&amp;:not(:last-child)_ul]:pb-1 [&amp;:not(:last-child)_ol]:pb-1 list-disc space-y-2.5 pl-7\">\n<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words\">Physical health: Asthma, sleep apnea, bone and joint problems, type 2 diabetes, and high blood pressure<\/li>\n<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words\">Mental health: Depression and anxiety.\u00a0Childhood obesity is also linked to abnormalities in brain structure, particularly in regions associated with executive functioning. These brain areas control cognitive flexibility, inhibitory control, planning, working memory, and decision-making\u2014all essential for daily activities, academic success, and social relationships (Mora-Gonzalez et al., 2019).<\/li>\n<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words\">Long-term risks: Obesity typically persists into adulthood, increasing risks for cardiovascular disease, cancer, and premature death<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body whitespace-normal break-words\">Despite evidence showing the importance of physical activity and play, several barriers prevent children from getting adequate exercise, including overscheded structured activities and policies that have reduced or eliminated recess to allocate more time for test preparation.<\/p>\n<p>A 2022 survey found that 86% of teachers in the U.S. have decreased or taken away recess as punishment for behavior. A 2022 longitudinal study found that withholding all or part of recess to punish misbehavior or finish classwork is directly related to increased sedentary behavior and decreased physical activity\u2014the opposite of what children need for healthy development.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Critical thinking question:<\/strong> Do you agree with these practices? Why or why not? Consider how eliminating recess might affect children&#8217;s physical development, cognitive functioning, attention spans, and overall well-being. What alternative approaches might schools take to support both academic achievement and physical health?<\/p>\n<\/section>\n<\/div>\n<hr class=\"before-footnotes clear\" \/><div class=\"footnotes\"><ol><li id=\"footnote-556-1\">Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2025). Preventing childhood obesity: 6 things families can do. https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/obesity\/family-action\/index.html <a href=\"#return-footnote-556-1\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 1\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-556-2\">Wyszy\u0144ska, J., Ring-Dimitriou, S., Thivel, D., Weghuber, D., Hadjipanayis, A., Grossman, Z., ... &amp; Mazur, A. (2020). Physical activity in the prevention of childhood obesity: The position of the European Childhood Obesity Group and the European Academy of Pediatrics. Frontiers in Pediatrics, 8, 535705. <a href=\"#return-footnote-556-2\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 2\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-556-3\">Howie, E. K., Harden, S. M., Barr-Anderson, D. J., &amp; Long, C. R. (2025). Elementary school compliance with a state recess minimum requirement by racial and geographic factors: a cross-sectional study. The international journal of behavioral nutrition and physical activity, 22(1), 37. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1186\/s12966-025-01730-x <a href=\"#return-footnote-556-3\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 3\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><\/ol><\/div>","protected":false},"author":20,"menu_order":10,"template":"","meta":{"_candela_citation":"[{\"type\":\"copyrighted_video\",\"description\":\"The False Belief Test: Theory of Mind\",\"author\":\"007IceWeasel\",\"organization\":\"\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=8hLubgpY2_w\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"other\",\"license_terms\":\"Standard YouTube License\"},{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"Stages of Development\",\"author\":\"OpenStax College\",\"organization\":\"\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/psychology-2e\/pages\/9-3-stages-of-development\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by\",\"license_terms\":\"Download for free at https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/psychology-2e\/pages\/1-introduction\"},{\"type\":\"original\",\"description\":\"Modification and adaptation, addition of TED talk\",\"author\":\"\",\"organization\":\"Lumen Learning\",\"url\":\"\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by\",\"license_terms\":\"\"}]","pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[],"license":[],"part":545,"module-header":"learn_it","content_attributions":[{"type":"copyrighted_video","description":"The False Belief Test: Theory of Mind","author":"007IceWeasel","organization":"","url":"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=8hLubgpY2_w","project":"","license":"other","license_terms":"Standard YouTube License"},{"type":"cc","description":"Stages of Development","author":"OpenStax College","organization":"","url":"https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/psychology-2e\/pages\/9-3-stages-of-development","project":"","license":"cc-by","license_terms":"Download for free at https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/psychology-2e\/pages\/1-introduction"},{"type":"original","description":"Modification and adaptation, addition of TED talk","author":"","organization":"Lumen Learning","url":"","project":"","license":"cc-by","license_terms":""}],"internal_book_links":[],"video_content":null,"cc_video_embed_content":{"cc_scripts":"","media_targets":[]},"try_it_collection":null,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/introductiontopsychology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/556"}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/introductiontopsychology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/introductiontopsychology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/introductiontopsychology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/20"}],"version-history":[{"count":17,"href":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/introductiontopsychology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/556\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":7618,"href":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/introductiontopsychology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/556\/revisions\/7618"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/introductiontopsychology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/545"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/introductiontopsychology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/556\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/introductiontopsychology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=556"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/introductiontopsychology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=556"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/introductiontopsychology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=556"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/introductiontopsychology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=556"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}