{"id":552,"date":"2023-03-03T19:13:17","date_gmt":"2023-03-03T19:13:17","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/introductiontopsychology\/chapter\/lifespan-theories-psychosexual-and-psychosocial-theories\/"},"modified":"2025-12-02T19:48:06","modified_gmt":"2025-12-02T19:48:06","slug":"lifespan-theories-psychosexual-and-psychosocial-theories","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/introductiontopsychology\/chapter\/lifespan-theories-psychosexual-and-psychosocial-theories\/","title":{"raw":"Theories of Development: Learn It 3\u2014Major Theories of Development","rendered":"Theories of Development: Learn It 3\u2014Major Theories of Development"},"content":{"raw":"<section class=\"textbox keyTakeaway\">\r\n<h3>theories of development<\/h3>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp15681184\">There are many theories regarding how babies and children grow and develop into happy, healthy adults. Some of the most significant theories include:<\/p>\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li><strong>Sigmund Freud's theory on psychosexual development<\/strong> with its five stages. It surmises that there are psychosexual stages in early childhood and children can develop issues if they get fixated on these stages.<\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>Erik Erikson's psychosocial theory<\/strong> and eight accompanying stages. This theory says that at each stage of life, humans must grapple with an issue (trust vs. mistrust, for example) and the way they resolve that issue influences personality development.<\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>Jean Piaget's cognitive theory<\/strong> <strong>of development<\/strong> and its four major stages, which recognizes that children develop reasoning skills as they age.<\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth's attachment theory<\/strong> holds that children develop one of four types of attachment with their caregiver that can impact their later development.<\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>Lev <\/strong><span class=\"search-highlight first text last\" data-timestamp=\"1596478422996\" data-highlight-id=\"abb39328-d67b-4f02-8164-59f5ff7216b3\" data-highlighted=\"true\"><strong>Vygotsky's<\/strong> <strong>sociocultural development theory<\/strong>, which emphasizes social influences on development. It suggests that human development is rooted in one\u2019s culture.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>Urie Bronfenbrenner's ecological system theory<\/strong>, which recognizes\u00a0five environmental systems that influence a person.<\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>Lawrence Kohlberg's theory of moral development<\/strong>. This says that children move through six stages of how they can think critically about ethical and moral issues.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<p>This is not a comprehensive list\u2014there are other popular theories and even more in development. We'll briefly cover a few of these theories here and dive deeper into others in later sections of the reading.<\/p>\r\n<\/section>\r\n<h2>Psychosexual Theory of Development: Freud's Theory<\/h2>\r\n<section id=\"fs-idm9486704\" data-depth=\"1\">\r\n<p id=\"fs-idm99320496\">Sigmund <span class=\"no-emphasis\" data-type=\"term\">Freud<\/span> (1856\u20131939) believed that personality develops during early childhood. For Freud, childhood experiences shape our personalities and behavior as adults. Freud viewed development as discontinuous; he believed that each of us must pass through a series of stages during childhood, and that if we lack proper nurturance and parenting during a stage, we may become stuck, or fixated, in that stage.<\/p>\r\n<section class=\"textbox keyTakeaway\">\r\n<h3>psychosexual development<\/h3>\r\n<p>Freud\u2019s stages are called the stages of <strong><span data-type=\"term\">psychosexual development<\/span><\/strong>. According to Freud, children\u2019s pleasure-seeking urges are focused on a different area of the body, called an erogenous zone, at each of the five stages of development: oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital.<\/p>\r\n<table summary=\"A five column table outlines Freud\u2019s stages of psychosexual development. From left to right the columns are labeled, \u201cStage, Age (years), Erogenous Zone, Major Conflict, and Adult Fixation Example.\u201d The contents of the five rows are as follows. The first row contains \u201coral; 0\u20131; mouth; weaning off breast or bottle; and smoking, overeating.\u201d The second row contains \u201canal; 1\u20133; anus; toilet training; and neatness, messiness.\u201d The third row contains \u201cphallic; 3\u20136; genitals; Oedipus\/Electra complex; and vanity, overambition.\u201d The fourth row contains \u201clatency; 6\u201312; none; none; and none.\u201d The fifth row contains \u201cgenital; 12+; genitals; none; and none.\u201d\">\r\n<thead>\r\n<tr>\r\n<th scope=\"col\">Stage<\/th>\r\n<th scope=\"col\">Age (years)<\/th>\r\n<th scope=\"col\">Erogenous Zone<\/th>\r\n<th scope=\"col\">Major Conflict<\/th>\r\n<th scope=\"col\">Adult Fixation Example<\/th>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/thead>\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Oral<\/td>\r\n<td>0\u20131<\/td>\r\n<td>Mouth<\/td>\r\n<td>Weaning off breast or bottle<\/td>\r\n<td>Smoking, overeating<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Anal<\/td>\r\n<td>1\u20133<\/td>\r\n<td>Anus<\/td>\r\n<td>Toilet training<\/td>\r\n<td>Neatness, messiness<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Phallic<\/td>\r\n<td>3\u20136<\/td>\r\n<td>Genitals<\/td>\r\n<td>Oedipus\/Electra complex<\/td>\r\n<td>Vanity, overambition<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Latency<\/td>\r\n<td>6\u201312<\/td>\r\n<td>None<\/td>\r\n<td>None<\/td>\r\n<td>None<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Genital<\/td>\r\n<td>12+<\/td>\r\n<td>Genitals<\/td>\r\n<td>None<\/td>\r\n<td>None<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<\/section>\r\n<p>While most of Freud\u2019s ideas have not found support in modern research, we cannot discount the contributions that Freud has made to the field of psychology. Psychologists today dispute Freud's psychosexual stages as a legitimate explanation for how one's personality develops, but what we can take away from Freud\u2019s theory is that personality is shaped, in some part, by experiences we have in childhood. These stages are discussed in detail in the module\u00a0on personality.<\/p>\r\n<\/section>\r\n<section id=\"fs-idp17260896\" data-depth=\"1\">\r\n<h2>Psychosocial Theory of Development: Erikson's Stages<\/h2>\r\n<p id=\"fs-idp2695952\">Erik <span class=\"no-emphasis\" data-type=\"term\">Erikson<\/span> (1902\u20131994), another stage theorist (who thought people develop through distinct stages), took Freud\u2019s theory and modified it as psychosocial theory. Erikson\u2019s <strong><span data-type=\"term\">psychosocial development <\/span>theory<\/strong> emphasizes the social nature of our development rather than its sexual nature. While Freud believed that personality is shaped only in childhood, Erikson proposed that personality development takes place all through the lifespan. Erikson suggested that how we interact with others is what affects our sense of self, or what he called the ego identity.<\/p>\r\n<section class=\"textbox keyTakeaway\">\r\n<h3><strong><span data-type=\"term\">psychosocial development <\/span>theory<\/strong><\/h3>\r\n<p>Erikson's<strong> psychosocial theory of development<\/strong> proposed that we are motivated by a need to achieve competence in certain areas of our lives. According to the theory, we experience eight stages of development over our lifespan, from infancy through late adulthood. At each stage, there is a conflict, or task, that we need to resolve. Successful completion of each developmental task results in a sense of competence and a healthy personality. Failure to master these tasks leads to feelings of inadequacy.<\/p>\r\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\r\n<table id=\"Table_09_02_01\" summary=\"A table outlines Erikson\u2019s Psychosocial Stages of Development. It contains four columns which are labeled \u201cStage; Age (years); Developmental Task; and Description.\u201d Each of the following eight rows corresponds to Erikson\u2019s eight psychosocial stages of development. From left to right, the first row reads: \u201c1; 0\u20131; trust vs. mistrust; and trust (or mistrust) that basic needs, such as nourishment and affection, will be met.\u201d The second row reads: \u201c2; 1\u20133; autonomy vs. shame\/doubt; and sense of independence in many tasks develops.\u201d The third row reads: \u201c3; 3\u20136; initiative vs. guilt; and take initiative on some activities, may develop guilt when success not met or boundaries overstepped.\u201d The fourth row reads: \u201c4; 7\u201311; industry vs. inferiority; and develop self-confidence in abilities when competent or sense of inferiority when not.\u201d The fifth row reads: \u201c5; 12\u201318; identity vs. confusion; and experiment with and develop identity and roles.\u201d The sixth row reads: \u201c6; 19\u201329; intimacy vs. isolation; and establish intimacy and relationships with others.\u201d The seventh row reads: \u201c7; 30\u201364; generativity vs. stagnation; and contribute to society and be part of a family.\u201d The eighth row reads: \u201c8; 65\u2013; integrity vs. despair; and assess and make sense of life and meaning of contributions.\u201d\">\r\n<caption><span data-type=\"title\">Table 1. Erikson\u2019s Psychosocial Stages of Development<\/span><\/caption>\r\n<thead>\r\n<tr>\r\n<th scope=\"col\">Stage<\/th>\r\n<th scope=\"col\">Age (years)<\/th>\r\n<th scope=\"col\">Developmental Task<\/th>\r\n<th scope=\"col\">Description<\/th>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/thead>\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>1<\/td>\r\n<td>0\u20131<\/td>\r\n<td>Trust vs. mistrust<\/td>\r\n<td>Trust (or mistrust) that basic needs, such as nourishment and affection, will be met<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>2<\/td>\r\n<td>1\u20133<\/td>\r\n<td>Autonomy vs. shame\/doubt<\/td>\r\n<td>Develop a sense of independence in many tasks<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>3<\/td>\r\n<td>3\u20136<\/td>\r\n<td>Initiative vs. guilt<\/td>\r\n<td>Take initiative on some activities\u2014may develop guilt when unsuccessful or boundaries overstepped<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>4<\/td>\r\n<td>7\u201311<\/td>\r\n<td>Industry vs. inferiority<\/td>\r\n<td>Develop self-confidence in abilities when competent or a sense of inferiority when not<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>5<\/td>\r\n<td>12\u201318<\/td>\r\n<td>Identity vs. confusion<\/td>\r\n<td>Experiment with and develop identity and roles<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>6<\/td>\r\n<td>19\u201329<\/td>\r\n<td>Intimacy vs. isolation<\/td>\r\n<td>Establish intimacy and relationships with others<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>7<\/td>\r\n<td>30\u201364<\/td>\r\n<td>Generativity vs. stagnation<\/td>\r\n<td>Contribute to society and be part of a family<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>8<\/td>\r\n<td>65\u2013<\/td>\r\n<td>Integrity vs. despair<\/td>\r\n<td>Assess and make sense of life and the meaning of contributions<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<\/section>\r\n<figure id=\"Figure_09_03_Erikson\">\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"244\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/ospsych\/m49109\/CNX_Psych_09_03_Erikson.jpg#fixme\" alt=\"A photograph depicts Erik Erikson in his later years.\" width=\"244\" height=\"305\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/> <strong>Figure 1<\/strong>. Erik Erikson proposed the psychosocial theory of development. In each stage of Erikson\u2019s theory, there is a psychosocial task that we must master in order to feel a sense of competence.[\/caption]\r\n<\/figure>\r\n<h3 class=\"font-claude-response-subheading text-text-100 mt-1 -mb-1.5\">Understanding Each Stage<\/h3>\r\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body whitespace-normal break-words\"><strong>Infancy (0-1): Trust vs. Mistrust<\/strong><br \/>\r\nTrust is the basis of our development during infancy. Infants depend entirely on their caregivers, so responsive caregivers who are sensitive to their baby's needs help develop trust\u2014the baby will see the world as a safe, predictable place. Unresponsive caregivers who do not meet their baby's needs can engender feelings of anxiety, fear, and mistrust, leading the baby to see the world as unpredictable.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body whitespace-normal break-words\"><strong>Toddlerhood (1-3): Autonomy vs. Shame\/Doubt<\/strong><br \/>\r\nAs toddlers begin to explore their world, they learn they can control their actions and act on the environment to get results. This is the \"me do it\" stage. They begin to show clear preferences for certain elements of the environment, such as food, toys, and clothing. For example, we might observe a budding sense of autonomy in a 2-year-old child who wants to choose her clothes and dress herself. Although her outfits might not be appropriate for the situation, her input in such basic decisions affects her sense of independence. If denied the opportunity to act on her environment, she may begin to doubt her abilities, which could lead to low self-esteem and feelings of shame.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body whitespace-normal break-words\"><strong>Preschool (3-6): Initiative vs. Guilt<\/strong><br \/>\r\nPreschool children are capable of initiating activities and asserting control over their world through social interactions and play. By learning to plan and achieve goals while interacting with others, they can master this task and develop self-confidence and a sense of purpose. Those who are unsuccessful at this stage\u2014with their initiative misfiring or stifled\u2014may develop feelings of guilt. How might over-controlling parents stifle a child's initiative?<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body whitespace-normal break-words\"><strong>Elementary School (6-12): Industry vs. Inferiority<\/strong><br \/>\r\nChildren begin to compare themselves to their peers to see how they measure up. They either develop a sense of pride and accomplishment in their schoolwork, sports, social activities, and family life, or they feel inferior and inadequate when they don't measure up. What are some things parents and teachers can do to help children develop a sense of competence and a belief in themselves and their abilities?<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body whitespace-normal break-words\"><strong>Adolescence (12-18): Identity vs. Role Confusion<\/strong><br \/>\r\nAn adolescent's main task is developing a sense of self. Adolescents struggle with questions such as \"Who am I?\" and \"What do I want to do with my life?\" Along the way, most adolescents try on many different selves to see which ones fit. Adolescents who are successful at this stage have a strong sense of identity and are able to remain true to their beliefs and values in the face of problems and other people's perspectives. What happens to apathetic adolescents who do not make a conscious search for identity, or those who are pressured to conform to their parents' ideas for the future? These teens will have a weak sense of self and experience role confusion. They are unsure of their identity and confused about the future.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body whitespace-normal break-words\"><strong>Early Adulthood (20s-early 40s): Intimacy vs. Isolation<\/strong><br \/>\r\nAfter we have developed a sense of self in adolescence, we are ready to share our life with others. Erikson said that we must have a strong sense of self before developing intimate relationships with others. Adults who do not develop a positive self-concept in adolescence may experience feelings of loneliness and emotional isolation.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body whitespace-normal break-words\"><strong>Middle Adulthood (40s-mid 60s): Generativity vs. Stagnation<\/strong><br \/>\r\nGenerativity involves finding your life's work and contributing to the development of others through activities such as volunteering, mentoring, and raising children. Those who do not master this task may experience stagnation, having little connection with others and little interest in productivity and self-improvement.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body whitespace-normal break-words\"><strong>Late Adulthood (mid-60s onward): Integrity vs. Despair<\/strong><br \/>\r\nPeople in late adulthood reflect on their lives and feel either a sense of satisfaction or a sense of failure. People who feel proud of their accomplishments feel a sense of integrity, and they can look back on their lives with few regrets. However, people who are not successful at this stage may feel as if their life has been wasted. They focus on what \"would have,\" \"should have,\" and \"could have\" been. They face the end of their lives with feelings of bitterness, depression, and despair.<\/p>\r\n<div>\r\n<section class=\"textbox tryIt\">[ohm2_question height=\"300\"]4264[\/ohm2_question]<\/section>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section>\r\n<section id=\"fs-idp17260896\" data-depth=\"1\">\r\n<h2>Cognitive Theory of Development: Piaget's Stages<\/h2>\r\n<p>Jean Piaget (1896\u20131980) is another stage theorist who studied childhood development. Instead of approaching development from a psychoanalytical or psychosocial perspective, Piaget focused on children\u2019s cognitive growth.<\/p>\r\n<section class=\"textbox keyTakeaway\">\r\n<h3>cognitive theory of development<\/h3>\r\n<p>Piaget's theory of cognitive development holds that our cognitive abilities develop through specific stages. As we progress to a new stage, there is a distinct shift in how we think and reason. Piaget's four stages are: sensorimotor, preoperational, operational, and concrete operational. We'll examine these in detail soon.<\/p>\r\n<p>Piaget believed that thinking is a central aspect of development and that children are naturally inquisitive. However, he said that children do not think and reason like adults (Piaget, 1930, 1932).<\/p>\r\n<\/section>\r\n<\/section>","rendered":"<section class=\"textbox keyTakeaway\">\n<h3>theories of development<\/h3>\n<p id=\"fs-idp15681184\">There are many theories regarding how babies and children grow and develop into happy, healthy adults. Some of the most significant theories include:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Sigmund Freud&#8217;s theory on psychosexual development<\/strong> with its five stages. It surmises that there are psychosexual stages in early childhood and children can develop issues if they get fixated on these stages.<\/li>\n<li><strong>Erik Erikson&#8217;s psychosocial theory<\/strong> and eight accompanying stages. This theory says that at each stage of life, humans must grapple with an issue (trust vs. mistrust, for example) and the way they resolve that issue influences personality development.<\/li>\n<li><strong>Jean Piaget&#8217;s cognitive theory<\/strong> <strong>of development<\/strong> and its four major stages, which recognizes that children develop reasoning skills as they age.<\/li>\n<li><strong>John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth&#8217;s attachment theory<\/strong> holds that children develop one of four types of attachment with their caregiver that can impact their later development.<\/li>\n<li><strong>Lev <\/strong><span class=\"search-highlight first text last\" data-timestamp=\"1596478422996\" data-highlight-id=\"abb39328-d67b-4f02-8164-59f5ff7216b3\" data-highlighted=\"true\"><strong>Vygotsky&#8217;s<\/strong> <strong>sociocultural development theory<\/strong>, which emphasizes social influences on development. It suggests that human development is rooted in one\u2019s culture.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><strong>Urie Bronfenbrenner&#8217;s ecological system theory<\/strong>, which recognizes\u00a0five environmental systems that influence a person.<\/li>\n<li><strong>Lawrence Kohlberg&#8217;s theory of moral development<\/strong>. This says that children move through six stages of how they can think critically about ethical and moral issues.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>This is not a comprehensive list\u2014there are other popular theories and even more in development. We&#8217;ll briefly cover a few of these theories here and dive deeper into others in later sections of the reading.<\/p>\n<\/section>\n<h2>Psychosexual Theory of Development: Freud&#8217;s Theory<\/h2>\n<section id=\"fs-idm9486704\" data-depth=\"1\">\n<p id=\"fs-idm99320496\">Sigmund <span class=\"no-emphasis\" data-type=\"term\">Freud<\/span> (1856\u20131939) believed that personality develops during early childhood. For Freud, childhood experiences shape our personalities and behavior as adults. Freud viewed development as discontinuous; he believed that each of us must pass through a series of stages during childhood, and that if we lack proper nurturance and parenting during a stage, we may become stuck, or fixated, in that stage.<\/p>\n<section class=\"textbox keyTakeaway\">\n<h3>psychosexual development<\/h3>\n<p>Freud\u2019s stages are called the stages of <strong><span data-type=\"term\">psychosexual development<\/span><\/strong>. According to Freud, children\u2019s pleasure-seeking urges are focused on a different area of the body, called an erogenous zone, at each of the five stages of development: oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital.<\/p>\n<table summary=\"A five column table outlines Freud\u2019s stages of psychosexual development. From left to right the columns are labeled, \u201cStage, Age (years), Erogenous Zone, Major Conflict, and Adult Fixation Example.\u201d The contents of the five rows are as follows. The first row contains \u201coral; 0\u20131; mouth; weaning off breast or bottle; and smoking, overeating.\u201d The second row contains \u201canal; 1\u20133; anus; toilet training; and neatness, messiness.\u201d The third row contains \u201cphallic; 3\u20136; genitals; Oedipus\/Electra complex; and vanity, overambition.\u201d The fourth row contains \u201clatency; 6\u201312; none; none; and none.\u201d The fifth row contains \u201cgenital; 12+; genitals; none; and none.\u201d\">\n<thead>\n<tr>\n<th scope=\"col\">Stage<\/th>\n<th scope=\"col\">Age (years)<\/th>\n<th scope=\"col\">Erogenous Zone<\/th>\n<th scope=\"col\">Major Conflict<\/th>\n<th scope=\"col\">Adult Fixation Example<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td>Oral<\/td>\n<td>0\u20131<\/td>\n<td>Mouth<\/td>\n<td>Weaning off breast or bottle<\/td>\n<td>Smoking, overeating<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Anal<\/td>\n<td>1\u20133<\/td>\n<td>Anus<\/td>\n<td>Toilet training<\/td>\n<td>Neatness, messiness<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Phallic<\/td>\n<td>3\u20136<\/td>\n<td>Genitals<\/td>\n<td>Oedipus\/Electra complex<\/td>\n<td>Vanity, overambition<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Latency<\/td>\n<td>6\u201312<\/td>\n<td>None<\/td>\n<td>None<\/td>\n<td>None<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Genital<\/td>\n<td>12+<\/td>\n<td>Genitals<\/td>\n<td>None<\/td>\n<td>None<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<\/section>\n<p>While most of Freud\u2019s ideas have not found support in modern research, we cannot discount the contributions that Freud has made to the field of psychology. Psychologists today dispute Freud&#8217;s psychosexual stages as a legitimate explanation for how one&#8217;s personality develops, but what we can take away from Freud\u2019s theory is that personality is shaped, in some part, by experiences we have in childhood. These stages are discussed in detail in the module\u00a0on personality.<\/p>\n<\/section>\n<section id=\"fs-idp17260896\" data-depth=\"1\">\n<h2>Psychosocial Theory of Development: Erikson&#8217;s Stages<\/h2>\n<p id=\"fs-idp2695952\">Erik <span class=\"no-emphasis\" data-type=\"term\">Erikson<\/span> (1902\u20131994), another stage theorist (who thought people develop through distinct stages), took Freud\u2019s theory and modified it as psychosocial theory. Erikson\u2019s <strong><span data-type=\"term\">psychosocial development <\/span>theory<\/strong> emphasizes the social nature of our development rather than its sexual nature. While Freud believed that personality is shaped only in childhood, Erikson proposed that personality development takes place all through the lifespan. Erikson suggested that how we interact with others is what affects our sense of self, or what he called the ego identity.<\/p>\n<section class=\"textbox keyTakeaway\">\n<h3><strong><span data-type=\"term\">psychosocial development <\/span>theory<\/strong><\/h3>\n<p>Erikson&#8217;s<strong> psychosocial theory of development<\/strong> proposed that we are motivated by a need to achieve competence in certain areas of our lives. According to the theory, we experience eight stages of development over our lifespan, from infancy through late adulthood. At each stage, there is a conflict, or task, that we need to resolve. Successful completion of each developmental task results in a sense of competence and a healthy personality. Failure to master these tasks leads to feelings of inadequacy.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<table id=\"Table_09_02_01\" summary=\"A table outlines Erikson\u2019s Psychosocial Stages of Development. It contains four columns which are labeled \u201cStage; Age (years); Developmental Task; and Description.\u201d Each of the following eight rows corresponds to Erikson\u2019s eight psychosocial stages of development. From left to right, the first row reads: \u201c1; 0\u20131; trust vs. mistrust; and trust (or mistrust) that basic needs, such as nourishment and affection, will be met.\u201d The second row reads: \u201c2; 1\u20133; autonomy vs. shame\/doubt; and sense of independence in many tasks develops.\u201d The third row reads: \u201c3; 3\u20136; initiative vs. guilt; and take initiative on some activities, may develop guilt when success not met or boundaries overstepped.\u201d The fourth row reads: \u201c4; 7\u201311; industry vs. inferiority; and develop self-confidence in abilities when competent or sense of inferiority when not.\u201d The fifth row reads: \u201c5; 12\u201318; identity vs. confusion; and experiment with and develop identity and roles.\u201d The sixth row reads: \u201c6; 19\u201329; intimacy vs. isolation; and establish intimacy and relationships with others.\u201d The seventh row reads: \u201c7; 30\u201364; generativity vs. stagnation; and contribute to society and be part of a family.\u201d The eighth row reads: \u201c8; 65\u2013; integrity vs. despair; and assess and make sense of life and meaning of contributions.\u201d\">\n<caption><span data-type=\"title\">Table 1. Erikson\u2019s Psychosocial Stages of Development<\/span><\/caption>\n<thead>\n<tr>\n<th scope=\"col\">Stage<\/th>\n<th scope=\"col\">Age (years)<\/th>\n<th scope=\"col\">Developmental Task<\/th>\n<th scope=\"col\">Description<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td>1<\/td>\n<td>0\u20131<\/td>\n<td>Trust vs. mistrust<\/td>\n<td>Trust (or mistrust) that basic needs, such as nourishment and affection, will be met<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>2<\/td>\n<td>1\u20133<\/td>\n<td>Autonomy vs. shame\/doubt<\/td>\n<td>Develop a sense of independence in many tasks<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>3<\/td>\n<td>3\u20136<\/td>\n<td>Initiative vs. guilt<\/td>\n<td>Take initiative on some activities\u2014may develop guilt when unsuccessful or boundaries overstepped<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>4<\/td>\n<td>7\u201311<\/td>\n<td>Industry vs. inferiority<\/td>\n<td>Develop self-confidence in abilities when competent or a sense of inferiority when not<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>5<\/td>\n<td>12\u201318<\/td>\n<td>Identity vs. confusion<\/td>\n<td>Experiment with and develop identity and roles<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>6<\/td>\n<td>19\u201329<\/td>\n<td>Intimacy vs. isolation<\/td>\n<td>Establish intimacy and relationships with others<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>7<\/td>\n<td>30\u201364<\/td>\n<td>Generativity vs. stagnation<\/td>\n<td>Contribute to society and be part of a family<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>8<\/td>\n<td>65\u2013<\/td>\n<td>Integrity vs. despair<\/td>\n<td>Assess and make sense of life and the meaning of contributions<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<\/section>\n<figure id=\"Figure_09_03_Erikson\">\n<figure style=\"width: 244px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/ospsych\/m49109\/CNX_Psych_09_03_Erikson.jpg#fixme\" alt=\"A photograph depicts Erik Erikson in his later years.\" width=\"244\" height=\"305\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 1<\/strong>. Erik Erikson proposed the psychosocial theory of development. In each stage of Erikson\u2019s theory, there is a psychosocial task that we must master in order to feel a sense of competence.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/figure>\n<h3 class=\"font-claude-response-subheading text-text-100 mt-1 -mb-1.5\">Understanding Each Stage<\/h3>\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body whitespace-normal break-words\"><strong>Infancy (0-1): Trust vs. Mistrust<\/strong><br \/>\nTrust is the basis of our development during infancy. Infants depend entirely on their caregivers, so responsive caregivers who are sensitive to their baby&#8217;s needs help develop trust\u2014the baby will see the world as a safe, predictable place. Unresponsive caregivers who do not meet their baby&#8217;s needs can engender feelings of anxiety, fear, and mistrust, leading the baby to see the world as unpredictable.<\/p>\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body whitespace-normal break-words\"><strong>Toddlerhood (1-3): Autonomy vs. Shame\/Doubt<\/strong><br \/>\nAs toddlers begin to explore their world, they learn they can control their actions and act on the environment to get results. This is the &#8220;me do it&#8221; stage. They begin to show clear preferences for certain elements of the environment, such as food, toys, and clothing. For example, we might observe a budding sense of autonomy in a 2-year-old child who wants to choose her clothes and dress herself. Although her outfits might not be appropriate for the situation, her input in such basic decisions affects her sense of independence. If denied the opportunity to act on her environment, she may begin to doubt her abilities, which could lead to low self-esteem and feelings of shame.<\/p>\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body whitespace-normal break-words\"><strong>Preschool (3-6): Initiative vs. Guilt<\/strong><br \/>\nPreschool children are capable of initiating activities and asserting control over their world through social interactions and play. By learning to plan and achieve goals while interacting with others, they can master this task and develop self-confidence and a sense of purpose. Those who are unsuccessful at this stage\u2014with their initiative misfiring or stifled\u2014may develop feelings of guilt. How might over-controlling parents stifle a child&#8217;s initiative?<\/p>\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body whitespace-normal break-words\"><strong>Elementary School (6-12): Industry vs. Inferiority<\/strong><br \/>\nChildren begin to compare themselves to their peers to see how they measure up. They either develop a sense of pride and accomplishment in their schoolwork, sports, social activities, and family life, or they feel inferior and inadequate when they don&#8217;t measure up. What are some things parents and teachers can do to help children develop a sense of competence and a belief in themselves and their abilities?<\/p>\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body whitespace-normal break-words\"><strong>Adolescence (12-18): Identity vs. Role Confusion<\/strong><br \/>\nAn adolescent&#8217;s main task is developing a sense of self. Adolescents struggle with questions such as &#8220;Who am I?&#8221; and &#8220;What do I want to do with my life?&#8221; Along the way, most adolescents try on many different selves to see which ones fit. Adolescents who are successful at this stage have a strong sense of identity and are able to remain true to their beliefs and values in the face of problems and other people&#8217;s perspectives. What happens to apathetic adolescents who do not make a conscious search for identity, or those who are pressured to conform to their parents&#8217; ideas for the future? These teens will have a weak sense of self and experience role confusion. They are unsure of their identity and confused about the future.<\/p>\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body whitespace-normal break-words\"><strong>Early Adulthood (20s-early 40s): Intimacy vs. Isolation<\/strong><br \/>\nAfter we have developed a sense of self in adolescence, we are ready to share our life with others. Erikson said that we must have a strong sense of self before developing intimate relationships with others. Adults who do not develop a positive self-concept in adolescence may experience feelings of loneliness and emotional isolation.<\/p>\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body whitespace-normal break-words\"><strong>Middle Adulthood (40s-mid 60s): Generativity vs. Stagnation<\/strong><br \/>\nGenerativity involves finding your life&#8217;s work and contributing to the development of others through activities such as volunteering, mentoring, and raising children. Those who do not master this task may experience stagnation, having little connection with others and little interest in productivity and self-improvement.<\/p>\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body whitespace-normal break-words\"><strong>Late Adulthood (mid-60s onward): Integrity vs. Despair<\/strong><br \/>\nPeople in late adulthood reflect on their lives and feel either a sense of satisfaction or a sense of failure. People who feel proud of their accomplishments feel a sense of integrity, and they can look back on their lives with few regrets. However, people who are not successful at this stage may feel as if their life has been wasted. They focus on what &#8220;would have,&#8221; &#8220;should have,&#8221; and &#8220;could have&#8221; been. They face the end of their lives with feelings of bitterness, depression, and despair.<\/p>\n<div>\n<section class=\"textbox tryIt\"><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"ohm4264\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/ohm.one.lumenlearning.com\/multiembedq.php?id=4264&theme=lumen&iframe_resize_id=ohm4264&source=tnh&show_question_numbers\" width=\"100%\" height=\"300\"><\/iframe><\/section>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<section data-depth=\"1\">\n<h2>Cognitive Theory of Development: Piaget&#8217;s Stages<\/h2>\n<p>Jean Piaget (1896\u20131980) is another stage theorist who studied childhood development. Instead of approaching development from a psychoanalytical or psychosocial perspective, Piaget focused on children\u2019s cognitive growth.<\/p>\n<section class=\"textbox keyTakeaway\">\n<h3>cognitive theory of development<\/h3>\n<p>Piaget&#8217;s theory of cognitive development holds that our cognitive abilities develop through specific stages. As we progress to a new stage, there is a distinct shift in how we think and reason. Piaget&#8217;s four stages are: sensorimotor, preoperational, operational, and concrete operational. We&#8217;ll examine these in detail soon.<\/p>\n<p>Piaget believed that thinking is a central aspect of development and that children are naturally inquisitive. However, he said that children do not think and reason like adults (Piaget, 1930, 1932).<\/p>\n<\/section>\n<\/section>\n","protected":false},"author":20,"menu_order":6,"template":"","meta":{"_candela_citation":"[{\"type\":\"cc-attribution\",\"description\":\"Lifespan Theories\",\"author\":\"OpenStax College\",\"organization\":\"\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/psychology-2e\/pages\/9-2-lifespan-theories\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by\",\"license_terms\":\"Download for free at https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/psychology-2e\/pages\/1-introduction\"}]","pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[],"license":[],"part":545,"module-header":"learn_it","content_attributions":[{"type":"cc-attribution","description":"Lifespan Theories","author":"OpenStax College","organization":"","url":"https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/psychology-2e\/pages\/9-2-lifespan-theories","project":"","license":"cc-by","license_terms":"Download for free at https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/psychology-2e\/pages\/1-introduction"}],"internal_book_links":[],"video_content":null,"cc_video_embed_content":{"cc_scripts":"","media_targets":[]},"try_it_collection":null,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/introductiontopsychology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/552"}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/introductiontopsychology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/introductiontopsychology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/introductiontopsychology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/20"}],"version-history":[{"count":9,"href":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/introductiontopsychology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/552\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":7313,"href":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/introductiontopsychology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/552\/revisions\/7313"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/introductiontopsychology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/545"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/introductiontopsychology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/552\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/introductiontopsychology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=552"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/introductiontopsychology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=552"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/introductiontopsychology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=552"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/introductiontopsychology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=552"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}