{"id":52,"date":"2023-01-19T17:09:46","date_gmt":"2023-01-19T17:09:46","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/introductiontopsychology\/chapter\/2-4-apply-it\/"},"modified":"2025-11-03T21:29:30","modified_gmt":"2025-11-03T21:29:30","slug":"2-4-apply-it","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/introductiontopsychology\/chapter\/2-4-apply-it\/","title":{"raw":"Statistical Thinking: Apply It","rendered":"Statistical Thinking: Apply It"},"content":{"raw":"<section class=\"textbox learningGoals\">\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li>Explain how statistics help to examine data<\/li>\r\n\t<li>Explain statistical significance and p-values<\/li>\r\n\t<li>Explain reliability and validity<\/li>\r\n\t<li>Understand how to read a research article<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/section>\r\n<section>Psychological studies often lead to interesting and intriguing discoveries about human behavior. Researchers are generally careful to jump to conclusions about their discoveries, but news outlets and popular media sources are less careful and they sometimes make claims that exaggerate the reach of the original study. One example of this is a 2012 study (Freedman, Park, Abnet, Hollenbeck, &amp; Sinha) that found that men who drank at least six cups of coffee a day also had a 10% lower chance of dying (women's chances were 15% lower) than those who drank none. Does this mean you should pick up or increase your own coffee habit?<\/section>\r\n<section>\r\n<section class=\"textbox proTip\">Remember, correlation is not causation! What other things would you want to know about this research before insisting to everyone that they need to drink more coffee? <span style=\"font-size: 14pt; text-align: initial; background-color: #f4f3ef;\">\u00a0<\/span><\/section>\r\n<\/section>\r\n<section class=\"textbox tryIt\">\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1883\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"293\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/855\/2016\/10\/17151911\/coffee.jpg\"><img class=\" wp-image-1883\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/855\/2016\/10\/17151911\/coffee.jpg\" alt=\"Coffee cup with heart shaped cream inside.\" width=\"293\" height=\"220\" \/><\/a> <strong>Figure 1<\/strong>. Coffee is wildly popular in many countries around the world. But can it make you live longer? [Image: Duncan, https:\/\/goo.gl\/vbMyTm, CC BY-NC 2.0, https:\/\/goo.gl\/l8UUGY][\/caption]\r\nLet's think critically about the study together:\r\n\r\n<p>1. What questions should you ask about how the study was conducted?[reveal-answer q=\"567396\"]Show Answer[\/reveal-answer]<br \/>\r\n[hidden-answer a=\"567396\"]What type of study was this? Was it an experiment or a correlational study? Was it a survey? How long was the study period? How many people were recruited for the study, how were they recruited, and from where? How old were they? What other variables were recorded about the individuals? Were changes made to the participants\u2019 coffee habits during the course of the study? Where was the study published? Was it a peer-reviewed article?[\/hidden-answer]<\/p>\r\n<p>2. What types of questions should you ask to examine the data?<\/p>\r\n<p>[reveal-answer q=\"729356\"]Show Answer[\/reveal-answer]<br \/>\r\n[hidden-answer a=\"729356\"]What type of data was collected? What graphs are relevant, and what do they reveal? What descriptive statistics can be calculated to summarize relevant aspects of the data? What patterns can we see in the data? Are there any individual observations that deviate from the overall pattern, and what do they reveal? For example, did the proportions differ for life longevity if we compared smokers to the non-smokers? Are the results statistically significant? Is the 10%\u201315% reduction in risk of death something that could have happened just by chance?[\/hidden-answer]<\/p>\r\n<p>3. What other things should you consider before increasing your personal coffee consumption based on this study?<\/p>\r\n<p>[reveal-answer q=\"494921\"]Show Answer[\/reveal-answer]<br \/>\r\n[hidden-answer a=\"494921\"]Who do you think these conclusions apply to? (Were the people in the coffee study older? Healthy? Living in cities?) Can you draw a cause-and-effect conclusion about your treatments? Are scientists now saying that coffee drinking is the cause of the decreased risk of death?[\/hidden-answer]<\/p>\r\n<\/section>\r\n<section class=\"textbox connectIt\">The good news is that we <em>can<\/em> answer many of these questions about this study:\r\n\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"1\">This was a 14-year study conducted by researchers at the National Cancer Institute.<\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"1\">The results were published in the June issue of the <em>New England Journal of Medicine<\/em>, a respected, peer-reviewed journal.<\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"1\">The study reviewed the coffee habits of more than 402,000 people ages 50 to 71 from six states and two metropolitan areas. Those with cancer, heart disease, and stroke were excluded at the start of the study. Coffee consumption was assessed once at the start of the study.<\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"1\">About 52,000 people died during the course of the study.<\/li>\r\n\t<li>The sample sizes were fairly large and so the p-values are quite small (less than .05).<\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"1\">People who drank between two and five cups of coffee daily showed a lower risk of death, but the amount of reduction increased for those drinking six or more cups.<\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"1\">Whether coffee was caffeinated or decaffeinated did not appear to affect the results.<\/li>\r\n\t<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"1\">This was an observational study, so no cause-and-effect conclusions can be drawn between coffee drinking and increased longevity, contrary to the impression conveyed by many news headlines about this study. In particular, it\u2019s possible that those with chronic diseases don\u2019t tend to drink coffee.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/section>\r\n<section class=\"textbox tryIt\">While these results do show a negative correlation between coffee and death, the actual data from the study is not as optimistic. Look at these quotes from the research[footnote]Freedman, N. D., Park, Y., Abnet, C. C., Hollenbeck, A. R., &amp; Sinha, R. (2012). Association of coffee drinking with total and cause-specific mortality. <em>The New England Journal of Medicine<\/em>, 366(20), 1891\u20131904. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1056\/NEJMoa1112010[\/footnote]:\r\n\r\n<p>4. What does this quote from the research mean?\"In age-adjusted analyses, coffee consumption was associated with increased mortality among both men and women. However, after multivariate adjustment for potential confounders, particularly smoking, a modest inverse association between coffee drinking and total mortality was observed for both sexes.\"<\/p>\r\n<p>[reveal-answer q=\"224311\"]Show Answer[\/reveal-answer]<br \/>\r\n[hidden-answer a=\"224311\"]<\/p>\r\n<p>When researchers study the effects of something like coffee on mortality, they need to consider other factors that could also be affecting mortality, like smoking or age. So, they do what's called an \"age-adjusted analysis\" where they look at the data while taking into account the age of the people being studied.<\/p>\r\n<p>Initially, the researchers found that in their age-adjusted analyses, coffee consumption seemed to be linked to an increased risk of dying for both men and women. However, they also found that when they took into account other factors that could be influencing the results (like smoking), there was actually a small decrease in the risk of dying for both men and women who drank coffee. In short, after considering other factors that could be affecting the results, the researchers found that drinking coffee was actually associated with a slightly lower risk of dying for both men and women.<\/p>\r\n<p>[\/hidden-answer]<\/p>\r\n<p>5. What does this quote from the research mean?<\/p>\r\n<p>\"After multivariate adjustment, coffee appeared to be inversely associated with most major causes of death in both men and women, including heart disease, respiratory disease, stroke, injuries and accidents, diabetes, and infections.\"<\/p>\r\n<p>[reveal-answer q=\"288168\"]Show Answer[\/reveal-answer]<br \/>\r\n[hidden-answer a=\"288168\"]<\/p>\r\n<p>When researchers do a \"multivariate adjustment\", they take into account many different factors that could be influencing the results. In this case, the researchers looked at whether there was a connection between drinking coffee and different causes of death, like heart disease, respiratory disease, stroke, injuries and accidents, diabetes, and infections.<\/p>\r\n<p>What they found was that after taking into account all these other factors, drinking coffee appeared to be linked to a lower risk of dying from most of these major causes of death, both for men and women. So, it seems that coffee may have some protective benefits against a range of diseases and health conditions that can lead to death.<\/p>\r\n<p>[\/hidden-answer]<\/p>\r\n<p>6. What does this quote from the research mean?<\/p>\r\n<p>\"In contrast, there was no significant association between coffee consumption and deaths from cancer in women. There was a borderline positive association in men: among 13,402 deaths from cancer, 880 deaths were reported among men who drank 6 or more cups of coffee per day.\"<\/p>\r\n<p>[reveal-answer q=\"186531\"]Show Answer[\/reveal-answer]<br \/>\r\n[hidden-answer a=\"186531\"]<\/p>\r\n<p>Researchers found that there was no significant association between coffee consumption and deaths from cancer in women. This means that drinking coffee did not appear to increase or decrease the risk of dying from cancer in women.<\/p>\r\n<p>However, in men, the researchers did find a borderline positive association between drinking coffee and deaths from cancer. This means that men who drank six or more cups of coffee per day had a slightly higher risk of dying from cancer than men who drank less coffee.<\/p>\r\n<p>[\/hidden-answer]<\/p>\r\n<p>7. What does this quote from the research mean?<\/p>\r\n<p>\"Although coffee consumption was inversely associated with diabetes, it was also positively associated with a number of behaviors that are considered unhealthy and are associated with an increased risk of death, such as tobacco smoking, consumption of red meat, and heavy alcohol use.\"<\/p>\r\n<p>[reveal-answer q=\"381870\"]Show Answer[\/reveal-answer]<br \/>\r\n[hidden-answer a=\"381870\"]Some studies have found that drinking coffee may actually lower the risk of developing diabetes, which is a good thing. However, it's also been found that people who drink coffee tend to engage in other behaviors that can be unhealthy and increase the risk of death. These include things like smoking tobacco, eating a lot of red meat, and drinking a lot of alcohol. So even though coffee itself may have some health benefits, people who drink coffee may also have other unhealthy habits that outweigh those benefits. In other words, just because someone drinks coffee and may have a lower risk of diabetes doesn't mean that they're necessarily overall healthier or at a lower risk of death, especially if they engage in other unhealthy behaviors.[\/hidden-answer]<\/p>\r\n<\/section>\r\n<p>This study needs to be reviewed in the larger context of similar studies, with the constant caution that this was not a randomized experiment. Whereas a statistical analysis can still \u201cadjust\u201d for other potential confounding variables, we are not yet convinced that researchers have identified them all or completely isolated why this decrease in death risk is evident. Researchers can now take the findings of this study and develop more focused studies that address new questions. In fact, additional studies support this original research, though a more recent <a href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedaily.com\/releases\/2022\/09\/220926200838.htm\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">2022 study on coffee consumption and health<\/a> lists 2-3 cups as the most beneficial daily consumption amount instead of 6 cups.<\/p>","rendered":"<section class=\"textbox learningGoals\">\n<ul>\n<li>Explain how statistics help to examine data<\/li>\n<li>Explain statistical significance and p-values<\/li>\n<li>Explain reliability and validity<\/li>\n<li>Understand how to read a research article<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/section>\n<section>Psychological studies often lead to interesting and intriguing discoveries about human behavior. Researchers are generally careful to jump to conclusions about their discoveries, but news outlets and popular media sources are less careful and they sometimes make claims that exaggerate the reach of the original study. One example of this is a 2012 study (Freedman, Park, Abnet, Hollenbeck, &amp; Sinha) that found that men who drank at least six cups of coffee a day also had a 10% lower chance of dying (women&#8217;s chances were 15% lower) than those who drank none. Does this mean you should pick up or increase your own coffee habit?<\/section>\n<section>\n<section class=\"textbox proTip\">Remember, correlation is not causation! What other things would you want to know about this research before insisting to everyone that they need to drink more coffee? <span style=\"font-size: 14pt; text-align: initial; background-color: #f4f3ef;\">\u00a0<\/span><\/section>\n<\/section>\n<section class=\"textbox tryIt\">\n<figure id=\"attachment_1883\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1883\" style=\"width: 293px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/855\/2016\/10\/17151911\/coffee.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-1883\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/855\/2016\/10\/17151911\/coffee.jpg\" alt=\"Coffee cup with heart shaped cream inside.\" width=\"293\" height=\"220\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1883\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 1<\/strong>. Coffee is wildly popular in many countries around the world. But can it make you live longer? [Image: Duncan, https:\/\/goo.gl\/vbMyTm, CC BY-NC 2.0, https:\/\/goo.gl\/l8UUGY]<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Let&#8217;s think critically about the study together:<\/p>\n<p>1. What questions should you ask about how the study was conducted?<\/p>\n<div class=\"qa-wrapper\" style=\"display: block\"><button class=\"show-answer show-answer-button collapsed\" data-target=\"q567396\">Show Answer<\/button><\/p>\n<div id=\"q567396\" class=\"hidden-answer\" style=\"display: none\">What type of study was this? Was it an experiment or a correlational study? Was it a survey? How long was the study period? How many people were recruited for the study, how were they recruited, and from where? How old were they? What other variables were recorded about the individuals? Were changes made to the participants\u2019 coffee habits during the course of the study? Where was the study published? Was it a peer-reviewed article?<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p>2. What types of questions should you ask to examine the data?<\/p>\n<p><div class=\"qa-wrapper\" style=\"display: block\"><button class=\"show-answer show-answer-button collapsed\" data-target=\"q729356\">Show Answer<\/button><\/p>\n<div id=\"q729356\" class=\"hidden-answer\" style=\"display: none\">What type of data was collected? What graphs are relevant, and what do they reveal? What descriptive statistics can be calculated to summarize relevant aspects of the data? What patterns can we see in the data? Are there any individual observations that deviate from the overall pattern, and what do they reveal? For example, did the proportions differ for life longevity if we compared smokers to the non-smokers? Are the results statistically significant? Is the 10%\u201315% reduction in risk of death something that could have happened just by chance?<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p>3. What other things should you consider before increasing your personal coffee consumption based on this study?<\/p>\n<p><div class=\"qa-wrapper\" style=\"display: block\"><button class=\"show-answer show-answer-button collapsed\" data-target=\"q494921\">Show Answer<\/button><\/p>\n<div id=\"q494921\" class=\"hidden-answer\" style=\"display: none\">Who do you think these conclusions apply to? (Were the people in the coffee study older? Healthy? Living in cities?) Can you draw a cause-and-effect conclusion about your treatments? Are scientists now saying that coffee drinking is the cause of the decreased risk of death?<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<section class=\"textbox connectIt\">The good news is that we <em>can<\/em> answer many of these questions about this study:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"1\">This was a 14-year study conducted by researchers at the National Cancer Institute.<\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"1\">The results were published in the June issue of the <em>New England Journal of Medicine<\/em>, a respected, peer-reviewed journal.<\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"1\">The study reviewed the coffee habits of more than 402,000 people ages 50 to 71 from six states and two metropolitan areas. Those with cancer, heart disease, and stroke were excluded at the start of the study. Coffee consumption was assessed once at the start of the study.<\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"1\">About 52,000 people died during the course of the study.<\/li>\n<li>The sample sizes were fairly large and so the p-values are quite small (less than .05).<\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"1\">People who drank between two and five cups of coffee daily showed a lower risk of death, but the amount of reduction increased for those drinking six or more cups.<\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"1\">Whether coffee was caffeinated or decaffeinated did not appear to affect the results.<\/li>\n<li style=\"font-weight: 400;\" aria-level=\"1\">This was an observational study, so no cause-and-effect conclusions can be drawn between coffee drinking and increased longevity, contrary to the impression conveyed by many news headlines about this study. In particular, it\u2019s possible that those with chronic diseases don\u2019t tend to drink coffee.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/section>\n<section class=\"textbox tryIt\">While these results do show a negative correlation between coffee and death, the actual data from the study is not as optimistic. Look at these quotes from the research<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Freedman, N. D., Park, Y., Abnet, C. C., Hollenbeck, A. R., &amp; Sinha, R. (2012). Association of coffee drinking with total and cause-specific mortality. The New England Journal of Medicine, 366(20), 1891\u20131904. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1056\/NEJMoa1112010\" id=\"return-footnote-52-1\" href=\"#footnote-52-1\" aria-label=\"Footnote 1\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[1]<\/sup><\/a>:<\/p>\n<p>4. What does this quote from the research mean?&#8221;In age-adjusted analyses, coffee consumption was associated with increased mortality among both men and women. However, after multivariate adjustment for potential confounders, particularly smoking, a modest inverse association between coffee drinking and total mortality was observed for both sexes.&#8221;<\/p>\n<p><div class=\"qa-wrapper\" style=\"display: block\"><button class=\"show-answer show-answer-button collapsed\" data-target=\"q224311\">Show Answer<\/button><\/p>\n<div id=\"q224311\" class=\"hidden-answer\" style=\"display: none\">\n<p>When researchers study the effects of something like coffee on mortality, they need to consider other factors that could also be affecting mortality, like smoking or age. So, they do what&#8217;s called an &#8220;age-adjusted analysis&#8221; where they look at the data while taking into account the age of the people being studied.<\/p>\n<p>Initially, the researchers found that in their age-adjusted analyses, coffee consumption seemed to be linked to an increased risk of dying for both men and women. However, they also found that when they took into account other factors that could be influencing the results (like smoking), there was actually a small decrease in the risk of dying for both men and women who drank coffee. In short, after considering other factors that could be affecting the results, the researchers found that drinking coffee was actually associated with a slightly lower risk of dying for both men and women.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p>5. What does this quote from the research mean?<\/p>\n<p>&#8220;After multivariate adjustment, coffee appeared to be inversely associated with most major causes of death in both men and women, including heart disease, respiratory disease, stroke, injuries and accidents, diabetes, and infections.&#8221;<\/p>\n<p><div class=\"qa-wrapper\" style=\"display: block\"><button class=\"show-answer show-answer-button collapsed\" data-target=\"q288168\">Show Answer<\/button><\/p>\n<div id=\"q288168\" class=\"hidden-answer\" style=\"display: none\">\n<p>When researchers do a &#8220;multivariate adjustment&#8221;, they take into account many different factors that could be influencing the results. In this case, the researchers looked at whether there was a connection between drinking coffee and different causes of death, like heart disease, respiratory disease, stroke, injuries and accidents, diabetes, and infections.<\/p>\n<p>What they found was that after taking into account all these other factors, drinking coffee appeared to be linked to a lower risk of dying from most of these major causes of death, both for men and women. So, it seems that coffee may have some protective benefits against a range of diseases and health conditions that can lead to death.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p>6. What does this quote from the research mean?<\/p>\n<p>&#8220;In contrast, there was no significant association between coffee consumption and deaths from cancer in women. There was a borderline positive association in men: among 13,402 deaths from cancer, 880 deaths were reported among men who drank 6 or more cups of coffee per day.&#8221;<\/p>\n<p><div class=\"qa-wrapper\" style=\"display: block\"><button class=\"show-answer show-answer-button collapsed\" data-target=\"q186531\">Show Answer<\/button><\/p>\n<div id=\"q186531\" class=\"hidden-answer\" style=\"display: none\">\n<p>Researchers found that there was no significant association between coffee consumption and deaths from cancer in women. This means that drinking coffee did not appear to increase or decrease the risk of dying from cancer in women.<\/p>\n<p>However, in men, the researchers did find a borderline positive association between drinking coffee and deaths from cancer. This means that men who drank six or more cups of coffee per day had a slightly higher risk of dying from cancer than men who drank less coffee.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p>7. What does this quote from the research mean?<\/p>\n<p>&#8220;Although coffee consumption was inversely associated with diabetes, it was also positively associated with a number of behaviors that are considered unhealthy and are associated with an increased risk of death, such as tobacco smoking, consumption of red meat, and heavy alcohol use.&#8221;<\/p>\n<p><div class=\"qa-wrapper\" style=\"display: block\"><button class=\"show-answer show-answer-button collapsed\" data-target=\"q381870\">Show Answer<\/button><\/p>\n<div id=\"q381870\" class=\"hidden-answer\" style=\"display: none\">Some studies have found that drinking coffee may actually lower the risk of developing diabetes, which is a good thing. However, it&#8217;s also been found that people who drink coffee tend to engage in other behaviors that can be unhealthy and increase the risk of death. These include things like smoking tobacco, eating a lot of red meat, and drinking a lot of alcohol. So even though coffee itself may have some health benefits, people who drink coffee may also have other unhealthy habits that outweigh those benefits. In other words, just because someone drinks coffee and may have a lower risk of diabetes doesn&#8217;t mean that they&#8217;re necessarily overall healthier or at a lower risk of death, especially if they engage in other unhealthy behaviors.<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<p>This study needs to be reviewed in the larger context of similar studies, with the constant caution that this was not a randomized experiment. Whereas a statistical analysis can still \u201cadjust\u201d for other potential confounding variables, we are not yet convinced that researchers have identified them all or completely isolated why this decrease in death risk is evident. Researchers can now take the findings of this study and develop more focused studies that address new questions. In fact, additional studies support this original research, though a more recent <a href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedaily.com\/releases\/2022\/09\/220926200838.htm\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">2022 study on coffee consumption and health<\/a> lists 2-3 cups as the most beneficial daily consumption amount instead of 6 cups.<\/p>\n<hr class=\"before-footnotes clear\" \/><div class=\"footnotes\"><ol><li id=\"footnote-52-1\">Freedman, N. D., Park, Y., Abnet, C. C., Hollenbeck, A. R., &amp; Sinha, R. (2012). Association of coffee drinking with total and cause-specific mortality. <em>The New England Journal of Medicine<\/em>, 366(20), 1891\u20131904. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1056\/NEJMoa1112010 <a href=\"#return-footnote-52-1\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 1\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><\/ol><\/div>","protected":false},"author":20,"menu_order":28,"template":"","meta":{"_candela_citation":"[{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"Statistical Thinking\",\"author\":\"Beth Chance and Allan Rossman \",\"organization\":\"California Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/nobaproject.com\/modules\/statistical-thinking\",\"project\":\"The Noba Project\",\"license\":\"cc-by-nc-sa\",\"license_terms\":\"\"}]","pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[],"license":[],"part":22,"module-header":"apply_it","content_attributions":[{"type":"cc","description":"Statistical Thinking","author":"Beth Chance and Allan Rossman ","organization":"California Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo","url":"https:\/\/nobaproject.com\/modules\/statistical-thinking","project":"The Noba Project","license":"cc-by-nc-sa","license_terms":""}],"internal_book_links":[],"video_content":null,"cc_video_embed_content":{"cc_scripts":"","media_targets":[]},"try_it_collection":null,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/introductiontopsychology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/52"}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/introductiontopsychology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/introductiontopsychology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/introductiontopsychology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/20"}],"version-history":[{"count":18,"href":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/introductiontopsychology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/52\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":7059,"href":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/introductiontopsychology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/52\/revisions\/7059"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/introductiontopsychology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/22"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/introductiontopsychology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/52\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/introductiontopsychology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=52"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/introductiontopsychology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=52"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/introductiontopsychology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=52"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/introductiontopsychology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=52"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}