However, reconstructed memories are not perfect copies of the original. They are flexible, meaning that each time we recall an event, we rebuild it using fragments of stored information mixed with our current beliefs, emotions, and new experiences. As a result, memories can shift, blend, or even become distorted over time (Roediger & DeSoto, 2015). These distortions are not usually intentional\u2014they are a natural part of how human memory works.<\/p>\r\n
This malleability helps explain one of the most researched memory phenomena in psychology: the misinformation effect<\/strong>.<\/p>\r\n The misinformation effect<\/strong> occurs when a person\u2019s memory for an event becomes less accurate<\/strong> because of new, misleading information presented after<\/strong> the event. For example:<\/p>\r\n hearing someone describe the event differently<\/p>\r\n<\/li>\r\n\t reading an inaccurate news headline<\/p>\r\n<\/li>\r\n\t seeing an altered video or image<\/p>\r\n<\/li>\r\n\t being asked a leading question<\/p>\r\n<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n The misinformation effect reflects two of Schacter\u2019s \u201csins of memory\u201d:<\/p>\r\n Misattribution:<\/strong> confusing the source of your memory<\/p>\r\n<\/li>\r\n\t Suggestibility:<\/strong> incorporating others\u2019 suggestions into your memory<\/p>\r\n<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/section>\r\n Cognitive psychologist Elizabeth Loftus<\/strong> has conducted extensive research on memory and was the first to do research on the\u00a0misinformation effect. According to Loftus, an eyewitness\u2019s memory of an event is very flexible due to this effect.<\/p>\r\n To test this, Loftus and John Palmer (1974) asked 45 U.S. college students to estimate the speed of cars using different forms of questions. The participants were shown films of car accidents and were asked to play the role of the eyewitness and describe what happened.<\/p>\r\n They were asked, \u201cAbout how fast were the cars going when they [smashed, collided, bumped, hit, or contacted] each other?\u201d The participants estimated the speed of the cars based on the verb used.<\/p>\r\n Participants who heard the word \u201csmashed\u201d estimated that the cars were traveling at a much higher speed than participants who heard the word \u201ccontacted.\u201d The implied information about speed, based on the verb they heard, had an effect on the participants\u2019 memory of the accident. In a follow-up one week later, participants were asked if they saw any broken glass (none was shown in the accident pictures).<\/p>\r\n Participants who had been in the \u201csmashed\u201d group were more than twice as likely to indicate that they did remember seeing glass. Loftus and Palmer demonstrated that a leading question encouraged them to not only remember the cars were going faster, but to also falsely remember that they saw broken glass.<\/p>\r\nthe misinformation effect<\/h3>\r\n
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Research on the Misinformation Effect<\/h2>\r\n
![\"Photograph](\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/855\/2016\/11\/03174315\/014ae75d56e48f6a3c06cc87c21e17f7137531fa.jpeg\")
<\/a> Figure 2<\/strong>. When people are asked leading questions about an event, their memory of the event may be altered. (credit a: modification of work by Rob Young)[\/caption]\r\n<\/figure>\r\n