{"id":493,"date":"2023-03-03T19:12:52","date_gmt":"2023-03-03T19:12:52","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/introductiontopsychology\/chapter\/7-2-1-learn-it-memory-and-the-brain\/"},"modified":"2025-11-18T17:38:11","modified_gmt":"2025-11-18T17:38:11","slug":"7-2-1-learn-it-memory-and-the-brain","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/introductiontopsychology\/chapter\/7-2-1-learn-it-memory-and-the-brain\/","title":{"raw":"The Brain and Memory: Learn It 2\u2014Flashbulb Memory","rendered":"The Brain and Memory: Learn It 2\u2014Flashbulb Memory"},"content":{"raw":"<h2>Memory in the Brain<\/h2>\r\n<h3 data-start=\"774\" data-end=\"828\"><strong data-start=\"778\" data-end=\"828\">The Cerebellum: Implicit and Procedural Memory<\/strong><\/h3>\r\n<p data-start=\"830\" data-end=\"904\">The <strong data-start=\"834\" data-end=\"848\">cerebellum<\/strong>, located at the back of the brain, plays a key role in:<\/p>\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li data-start=\"908\" data-end=\"975\">Procedural memories (how to ride a bike, type, or play piano)<\/li>\r\n\t<li data-start=\"978\" data-end=\"998\">Motor learning<\/li>\r\n\t<li data-start=\"1001\" data-end=\"1027\">Classical conditioning<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<p data-start=\"1029\" data-end=\"1519\">A well-known line of research demonstrates this clearly. In a classical conditioning experiment, rabbits learned to blink when a tone predicted a puff of air to the eye. When researchers damaged the rabbits\u2019 <strong data-start=\"1237\" data-end=\"1251\">cerebellum<\/strong>, the animals <strong data-start=\"1265\" data-end=\"1325\">could no longer learn the conditioned eye-blink response<\/strong> (Steinmetz, 1999; Green &amp; Woodruff-Pak, 2000). This tells us the cerebellum is necessary for forming certain types of learned, automatic behaviors\u2014even when the hippocampus is not involved.<\/p>\r\n<h3 data-start=\"1526\" data-end=\"1605\"><strong data-start=\"1530\" data-end=\"1605\">The Prefrontal Cortex: Organizing, Encoding, and Retrieving Information<\/strong><\/h3>\r\n<p data-start=\"1607\" data-end=\"1821\">While the cerebellum handles implicit learning, the <strong data-start=\"1659\" data-end=\"1686\">prefrontal cortex (PFC)<\/strong>\u2014especially the left and right frontal regions\u2014helps us <strong data-start=\"1742\" data-end=\"1776\">encode, retrieve, and organize<\/strong> information in working and long-term memory.<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"1823\" data-end=\"1858\">Brain-imaging studies support this. In one study, participants searched for the letter <em data-start=\"1913\" data-end=\"1916\">a<\/em> in words (a shallow, perceptual task) or categorized nouns as living\/non-living (a deeper, semantic task). Recall was much better for words processed semantically and PET scans showed greater activation in the left inferior prefrontal cortex during semantic encoding (Kapur et al., 1994).<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"2220\" data-end=\"2300\">Another study found a pattern known as <strong data-start=\"2259\" data-end=\"2289\">hemispheric specialization<\/strong> in memory:<\/p>\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li data-start=\"2304\" data-end=\"2352\">Left PFC is more active during encoding<\/li>\r\n\t<li data-start=\"2355\" data-end=\"2424\">Right PFC is more active during retrieval (Craik et al., 1999)<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<p data-start=\"2426\" data-end=\"2582\">Together, these findings suggest the prefrontal cortex helps us decide what to attend to, how to organize it, and how to pull it back out later.<\/p>\r\n<section data-depth=\"1\">\r\n<h2>Neurotransmitters<\/h2>\r\n<p data-start=\"2625\" data-end=\"2796\">Memory formation is not just about brain structures\u2014it also relies on chemical communication between neurons. Several neurotransmitters play key roles in memory processes:<\/p>\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li data-start=\"2800\" data-end=\"2870\">Epinephrine \u2013 boosts memory during emotional or stressful events<\/li>\r\n\t<li data-start=\"2873\" data-end=\"2941\">Dopamine \u2013 important for motivation, reinforcement, and recall<\/li>\r\n\t<li data-start=\"2944\" data-end=\"3000\">Serotonin \u2013 linked to mood and memory interactions<\/li>\r\n\t<li data-start=\"3003\" data-end=\"3079\">Acetylcholine \u2013 essential for encoding; reduced in Alzheimer\u2019s disease<\/li>\r\n\t<li data-start=\"3082\" data-end=\"3159\">Glutamate \u2013 a major excitatory neurotransmitter that strengthens synapses<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<p data-start=\"3161\" data-end=\"3272\">Although researchers still debate the exact role of each neurotransmitter (Blokland, 1996), one thing is clear: repeated neural activity leads to more neurotransmitter release, stronger synaptic efficiency, and long-term potentiation (LTP)\u2014the biological foundation of<strong style=\"font-family: 'Public Sans', -apple-system, BlinkMacSystemFont, 'Segoe UI', Roboto, Oxygen-Sans, Ubuntu, Cantarell, 'Helvetica Neue', sans-serif;\" data-start=\"3276\" data-end=\"3458\"> memory consolidation.<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"3460\" data-end=\"3552\">This is why practice, rehearsal, and emotional intensity can make memories more durable.<\/p>\r\n<h2 data-start=\"3559\" data-end=\"3600\"><strong data-start=\"3562\" data-end=\"3600\">Emotion and Memory<\/strong><\/h2>\r\n<p data-start=\"3602\" data-end=\"3857\">Emotional events are remembered more vividly than neutral ones. According to <strong data-start=\"3679\" data-end=\"3697\">arousal theory<\/strong>, strong emotional experiences trigger the release of stress hormones and neurotransmitters that strengthen memory encoding (Christianson, 1992; McGaugh, 2003).<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"3859\" data-end=\"3878\">This helps explain:<\/p>\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li data-start=\"3882\" data-end=\"3919\">Why you remember your first breakup<\/li>\r\n\t<li data-start=\"3922\" data-end=\"3967\">Why a car accident might feel unforgettable<\/li>\r\n\t<li data-start=\"3970\" data-end=\"4031\">Why childhood songs or smells carry powerful emotional weight<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<section class=\"textbox keyTakeaway\">\r\n<h3>flashbulb memories<\/h3>\r\n<p data-start=\"4065\" data-end=\"4313\">A <strong data-start=\"4067\" data-end=\"4087\">flashbulb memory<\/strong> is an exceptionally vivid and detailed recollection of an emotionally significant event. These memories often feel photographic\u2014people can recall where they were, who they were with, even small details about the surroundings.<\/p>\r\n<\/section>\r\n<p data-start=\"4315\" data-end=\"4340\">Classic examples of flashbulb memories include:<\/p>\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li data-start=\"4344\" data-end=\"4372\">The 9\/11 terrorist attacks<\/li>\r\n\t<li data-start=\"4375\" data-end=\"4401\">The Challenger explosion<\/li>\r\n\t<li data-start=\"4404\" data-end=\"4481\">Personal events like the birth of a child or the moment of receiving big news<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<p data-start=\"4483\" data-end=\"4643\">A Pew Research Center study found that 97% of Americans aged 8 or older on 9\/11 can vividly remember how they learned about the attacks\u2014even a decade later.<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"4645\" data-end=\"4696\">However, modern research shows an important nuance: f<span style=\"font-family: 'Public Sans', -apple-system, BlinkMacSystemFont, 'Segoe UI', Roboto, Oxygen-Sans, Ubuntu, Cantarell, 'Helvetica Neue', sans-serif;\">lashbulb memories feel extraordinarily vivid\u2014but they are not always accurate. <\/span>Even though people are confident in them, recall tends to change subtly over time (Hirst &amp; Phelps, 2016). Flashbulb memories can be highly emotional, but they are not perfect \u201cphotographs\u201d of the moment.<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"4986\" data-end=\"5159\">Flashbulb memories can be positive (a surprise engagement), negative (a natural disaster), or personally meaningful (a family event)\u2014not just national tragedies.<\/p>\r\n<div data-type=\"note\" data-label=\"Dig Deeper\">\r\n<div data-type=\"title\">\r\n<div data-type=\"title\">\r\n<section class=\"textbox tryIt\">[ohm2_question height=\"200\"]4208[\/ohm2_question]<\/section>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section>","rendered":"<h2>Memory in the Brain<\/h2>\n<h3 data-start=\"774\" data-end=\"828\"><strong data-start=\"778\" data-end=\"828\">The Cerebellum: Implicit and Procedural Memory<\/strong><\/h3>\n<p data-start=\"830\" data-end=\"904\">The <strong data-start=\"834\" data-end=\"848\">cerebellum<\/strong>, located at the back of the brain, plays a key role in:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li data-start=\"908\" data-end=\"975\">Procedural memories (how to ride a bike, type, or play piano)<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"978\" data-end=\"998\">Motor learning<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"1001\" data-end=\"1027\">Classical conditioning<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p data-start=\"1029\" data-end=\"1519\">A well-known line of research demonstrates this clearly. In a classical conditioning experiment, rabbits learned to blink when a tone predicted a puff of air to the eye. When researchers damaged the rabbits\u2019 <strong data-start=\"1237\" data-end=\"1251\">cerebellum<\/strong>, the animals <strong data-start=\"1265\" data-end=\"1325\">could no longer learn the conditioned eye-blink response<\/strong> (Steinmetz, 1999; Green &amp; Woodruff-Pak, 2000). This tells us the cerebellum is necessary for forming certain types of learned, automatic behaviors\u2014even when the hippocampus is not involved.<\/p>\n<h3 data-start=\"1526\" data-end=\"1605\"><strong data-start=\"1530\" data-end=\"1605\">The Prefrontal Cortex: Organizing, Encoding, and Retrieving Information<\/strong><\/h3>\n<p data-start=\"1607\" data-end=\"1821\">While the cerebellum handles implicit learning, the <strong data-start=\"1659\" data-end=\"1686\">prefrontal cortex (PFC)<\/strong>\u2014especially the left and right frontal regions\u2014helps us <strong data-start=\"1742\" data-end=\"1776\">encode, retrieve, and organize<\/strong> information in working and long-term memory.<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"1823\" data-end=\"1858\">Brain-imaging studies support this. In one study, participants searched for the letter <em data-start=\"1913\" data-end=\"1916\">a<\/em> in words (a shallow, perceptual task) or categorized nouns as living\/non-living (a deeper, semantic task). Recall was much better for words processed semantically and PET scans showed greater activation in the left inferior prefrontal cortex during semantic encoding (Kapur et al., 1994).<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"2220\" data-end=\"2300\">Another study found a pattern known as <strong data-start=\"2259\" data-end=\"2289\">hemispheric specialization<\/strong> in memory:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li data-start=\"2304\" data-end=\"2352\">Left PFC is more active during encoding<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"2355\" data-end=\"2424\">Right PFC is more active during retrieval (Craik et al., 1999)<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p data-start=\"2426\" data-end=\"2582\">Together, these findings suggest the prefrontal cortex helps us decide what to attend to, how to organize it, and how to pull it back out later.<\/p>\n<section data-depth=\"1\">\n<h2>Neurotransmitters<\/h2>\n<p data-start=\"2625\" data-end=\"2796\">Memory formation is not just about brain structures\u2014it also relies on chemical communication between neurons. Several neurotransmitters play key roles in memory processes:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li data-start=\"2800\" data-end=\"2870\">Epinephrine \u2013 boosts memory during emotional or stressful events<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"2873\" data-end=\"2941\">Dopamine \u2013 important for motivation, reinforcement, and recall<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"2944\" data-end=\"3000\">Serotonin \u2013 linked to mood and memory interactions<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"3003\" data-end=\"3079\">Acetylcholine \u2013 essential for encoding; reduced in Alzheimer\u2019s disease<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"3082\" data-end=\"3159\">Glutamate \u2013 a major excitatory neurotransmitter that strengthens synapses<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p data-start=\"3161\" data-end=\"3272\">Although researchers still debate the exact role of each neurotransmitter (Blokland, 1996), one thing is clear: repeated neural activity leads to more neurotransmitter release, stronger synaptic efficiency, and long-term potentiation (LTP)\u2014the biological foundation of<strong style=\"font-family: 'Public Sans', -apple-system, BlinkMacSystemFont, 'Segoe UI', Roboto, Oxygen-Sans, Ubuntu, Cantarell, 'Helvetica Neue', sans-serif;\" data-start=\"3276\" data-end=\"3458\"> memory consolidation.<\/strong><\/p>\n<p data-start=\"3460\" data-end=\"3552\">This is why practice, rehearsal, and emotional intensity can make memories more durable.<\/p>\n<h2 data-start=\"3559\" data-end=\"3600\"><strong data-start=\"3562\" data-end=\"3600\">Emotion and Memory<\/strong><\/h2>\n<p data-start=\"3602\" data-end=\"3857\">Emotional events are remembered more vividly than neutral ones. According to <strong data-start=\"3679\" data-end=\"3697\">arousal theory<\/strong>, strong emotional experiences trigger the release of stress hormones and neurotransmitters that strengthen memory encoding (Christianson, 1992; McGaugh, 2003).<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"3859\" data-end=\"3878\">This helps explain:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li data-start=\"3882\" data-end=\"3919\">Why you remember your first breakup<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"3922\" data-end=\"3967\">Why a car accident might feel unforgettable<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"3970\" data-end=\"4031\">Why childhood songs or smells carry powerful emotional weight<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<section class=\"textbox keyTakeaway\">\n<h3>flashbulb memories<\/h3>\n<p data-start=\"4065\" data-end=\"4313\">A <strong data-start=\"4067\" data-end=\"4087\">flashbulb memory<\/strong> is an exceptionally vivid and detailed recollection of an emotionally significant event. These memories often feel photographic\u2014people can recall where they were, who they were with, even small details about the surroundings.<\/p>\n<\/section>\n<p data-start=\"4315\" data-end=\"4340\">Classic examples of flashbulb memories include:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li data-start=\"4344\" data-end=\"4372\">The 9\/11 terrorist attacks<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"4375\" data-end=\"4401\">The Challenger explosion<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"4404\" data-end=\"4481\">Personal events like the birth of a child or the moment of receiving big news<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p data-start=\"4483\" data-end=\"4643\">A Pew Research Center study found that 97% of Americans aged 8 or older on 9\/11 can vividly remember how they learned about the attacks\u2014even a decade later.<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"4645\" data-end=\"4696\">However, modern research shows an important nuance: f<span style=\"font-family: 'Public Sans', -apple-system, BlinkMacSystemFont, 'Segoe UI', Roboto, Oxygen-Sans, Ubuntu, Cantarell, 'Helvetica Neue', sans-serif;\">lashbulb memories feel extraordinarily vivid\u2014but they are not always accurate. <\/span>Even though people are confident in them, recall tends to change subtly over time (Hirst &amp; Phelps, 2016). Flashbulb memories can be highly emotional, but they are not perfect \u201cphotographs\u201d of the moment.<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"4986\" data-end=\"5159\">Flashbulb memories can be positive (a surprise engagement), negative (a natural disaster), or personally meaningful (a family event)\u2014not just national tragedies.<\/p>\n<div data-type=\"note\" data-label=\"Dig Deeper\">\n<div data-type=\"title\">\n<div data-type=\"title\">\n<section class=\"textbox tryIt\"><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"ohm4208\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/ohm.one.lumenlearning.com\/multiembedq.php?id=4208&theme=lumen&iframe_resize_id=ohm4208&source=tnh&show_question_numbers\" width=\"100%\" height=\"200\"><\/iframe><\/section>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n","protected":false},"author":20,"menu_order":11,"template":"","meta":{"_candela_citation":"[{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"Parts of the Brain Involved with Memory\",\"author\":\"OpenStax College\",\"organization\":\"\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/psychology-2e\/pages\/8-2-parts-of-the-brain-involved-with-memory\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by\",\"license_terms\":\"Access for free at https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/psychology-2e\/pages\/1-introduction\"},{\"type\":\"copyrighted_video\",\"description\":\"Your Most Vivid Memories Aren\\'t As Accurate As You Think\",\"author\":\"\",\"organization\":\"SciShow Psych\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=3kE1M-MfXxc\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"arr\",\"license_terms\":\"Standard YouTube License\"}]","pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[],"license":[],"part":628,"module-header":"learn_it","content_attributions":null,"internal_book_links":[],"video_content":null,"cc_video_embed_content":{"cc_scripts":"","media_targets":[]},"try_it_collection":null,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/introductiontopsychology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/493"}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/introductiontopsychology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/introductiontopsychology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/introductiontopsychology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/20"}],"version-history":[{"count":20,"href":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/introductiontopsychology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/493\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":7239,"href":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/introductiontopsychology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/493\/revisions\/7239"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/introductiontopsychology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/628"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/introductiontopsychology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/493\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/introductiontopsychology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=493"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/introductiontopsychology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=493"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/introductiontopsychology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=493"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/introductiontopsychology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=493"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}