{"id":492,"date":"2023-03-03T19:12:51","date_gmt":"2023-03-03T19:12:51","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/introductiontopsychology\/chapter\/parts-of-the-brain-involved-with-memory\/"},"modified":"2025-11-18T17:30:47","modified_gmt":"2025-11-18T17:30:47","slug":"parts-of-the-brain-involved-with-memory","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/introductiontopsychology\/chapter\/parts-of-the-brain-involved-with-memory\/","title":{"raw":"The Brain and Memory: Learn It 1\u2014Parts of the Brain","rendered":"The Brain and Memory: Learn It 1\u2014Parts of the Brain"},"content":{"raw":"<section class=\"textbox learningGoals\">\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li>Understand the functions of different brain parts in memory<\/li>\r\n\t<li>Compare and contrast anterograde and retrograde amnesia<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/section>\r\n<h2>Memory in the Brain<\/h2>\r\n<p data-start=\"479\" data-end=\"708\">Are memories stored in just one place in the brain\u2014or do they live everywhere? Early neuroscientists, including <strong data-start=\"593\" data-end=\"609\">Karl Lashley<\/strong>, tackled this question by searching for the <em data-start=\"654\" data-end=\"662\">engram<\/em>: the physical trace of a memory in the brain.<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"743\" data-end=\"990\">In the 1920s\u20131950s, Lashley trained rats to run mazes and then created lesions in different parts of their cerebral cortex to see if he could erase the maze memory. Surprisingly, the rats still remembered the maze, no matter which area he damaged.<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"992\" data-end=\"1051\">From this, he proposed the <strong data-start=\"1019\" data-end=\"1050\">equipotentiality hypothesis<\/strong>: i<span style=\"font-family: 'Public Sans', -apple-system, BlinkMacSystemFont, 'Segoe UI', Roboto, Oxygen-Sans, Ubuntu, Cantarell, 'Helvetica Neue', sans-serif;\">f one part of a brain region involved in memory is damaged, other parts can sometimes take over its function.<\/span><\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"1171\" data-end=\"1500\">Although Lashley never found the engram, modern neuroscience has identified specific brain circuits involved in memory formation. Nobel Prize\u2013winning neuroscientist <strong data-start=\"1336\" data-end=\"1351\">Eric Kandel<\/strong> helped show that memories involve long-term changes at the synapse\u2014a process called <strong data-start=\"1436\" data-end=\"1468\">long-term potentiation (LTP)<\/strong>\u2014and not a single \u201cmemory spot.\u201d LTP strengthens the neural pathways that represent a memory, helping make that memory stable and long-lasting.<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"1502\" data-end=\"1539\">Today, scientists agree on two ideas:<\/p>\r\n<ol>\r\n\t<li data-start=\"1544\" data-end=\"1584\">Memory is not stored in one place.<\/li>\r\n\t<li data-start=\"1588\" data-end=\"1653\">Different brain structures support different types of memory.<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<p data-start=\"1655\" data-end=\"1754\">The most important structures are the <strong data-start=\"1693\" data-end=\"1753\">amygdala, hippocampus, cerebellum, and prefrontal cortex<\/strong>.<\/p>\r\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\r\n<figure>\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_6841\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"649\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/855\/2015\/02\/03165711\/ea9b2d0fcd8506c48d06546c88fb35f4d2f71429.jpeg\"><img class=\"wp-image-6841 size-full\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/855\/2015\/02\/03165711\/ea9b2d0fcd8506c48d06546c88fb35f4d2f71429.jpeg\" alt=\"An illustration of a brain shows the location of the amygdala, hippocampus, cerebellum, and prefrontal cortex.\" width=\"649\" height=\"431\" \/><\/a> <strong>Figure 1<\/strong>. The amygdala is involved in fear and fear memories. The hippocampus is associated with declarative and episodic memory as well as recognition memory. The cerebellum plays a role in processing procedural memories, such as how to play the piano. The prefrontal cortex appears to be involved in remembering semantic tasks.[\/caption]\r\n<\/figure>\r\n<section data-depth=\"1\">\r\n<h2>Amygdala<\/h2>\r\n<p data-start=\"1860\" data-end=\"1998\">The amygdala helps regulate emotions like fear, anger, and excitement. These emotional states influence how strongly memories are encoded.<\/p>\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li data-start=\"2002\" data-end=\"2061\">Stress hormones such as adrenaline activate the amygdala.<\/li>\r\n\t<li data-start=\"2064\" data-end=\"2132\">Emotional events\u2014positive <em data-start=\"2090\" data-end=\"2094\">or<\/em> negative\u2014are remembered more vividly.<\/li>\r\n\t<li data-start=\"2135\" data-end=\"2216\">The amygdala is essential for <strong data-start=\"2165\" data-end=\"2186\">fear conditioning<\/strong> and other emotional learning.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<p data-start=\"2218\" data-end=\"2362\">Research shows that when neurons in the amygdala connected to a specific fear memory are removed or disrupted, the memory weakens or disappears.<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"2218\" data-end=\"2362\">For example, one researcher experimented with rats and the fear response (Josselyn, 2010). Using Pavlovian conditioning, a neutral tone was paired with a foot shock to the rats. This produced a fear memory in the rats. After being conditioned, each time they heard the tone, they would freeze (a defense response in rats), indicating a memory for the impending shock. Then the researchers induced cell death in neurons in the lateral amygdala, which is the specific area of the brain responsible for fear memories. They found the fear memory faded (became extinct).\u00a0<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"2364\" data-end=\"2473\">The amygdala also plays a role in <strong data-start=\"2398\" data-end=\"2422\">memory consolidation<\/strong>\u2014strengthening new memories so they last over time.<\/p>\r\n<section class=\"textbox linkToLearning\">In this TED Talk called <a href=\"https:\/\/www.ted.com\/talks\/steve_ramirez_and_xu_liu_a_mouse_a_laser_beam_a_manipulated_memory\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">\u201cA Mouse. A Laser Beam. A Manipulated Memory,\u201d<\/a> Steve Ramirez and Xu Liu from MIT talk about using laser beams to manipulate fear memory in rats. Find out why their work caused a media frenzy once it was published in <em data-effect=\"italics\">Science<\/em>.<\/section>\r\n<div data-type=\"note\" data-label=\"Link to Learning\">\r\n<h2>Hippocampus<\/h2>\r\n<p data-start=\"2538\" data-end=\"2664\">The hippocampus is central to forming <strong data-start=\"2576\" data-end=\"2600\">declarative memories<\/strong>\u2014facts and personal experiences. It is especially important for:<\/p>\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li data-start=\"2668\" data-end=\"2713\">Episodic memory (events from your life)<\/li>\r\n\t<li data-start=\"2716\" data-end=\"2759\">Semantic memory (facts and knowledge)<\/li>\r\n\t<li data-start=\"2762\" data-end=\"2811\">Spatial memory (navigation, place learning)<\/li>\r\n\t<li data-start=\"2814\" data-end=\"2836\">Recognition memory<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<p data-start=\"2838\" data-end=\"2958\">Lesion studies in rats and humans show that without a functioning hippocampus, new declarative memories cannot form. The most famous example is <strong data-start=\"2987\" data-end=\"3012\">Henry Molaison (H.M.)<\/strong>, who had large portions of his hippocampi removed to treat epilepsy. After surgery:<\/p>\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li data-start=\"3100\" data-end=\"3150\">He could remember events from before the surgery<\/li>\r\n\t<li data-start=\"3153\" data-end=\"3211\">But he could not form new long-term declarative memories<\/li>\r\n\t<li data-start=\"3214\" data-end=\"3271\">His procedural memory (skills and habits) stayed intact<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<p data-start=\"3273\" data-end=\"3431\">The hippocampus does <strong data-start=\"3294\" data-end=\"3301\">not<\/strong> store memories permanently. Instead, it acts as a temporary \u201cloading dock,\u201d sending memories to the cortex for long-term storage.<\/p>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<section class=\"textbox linkToLearning\"><a href=\"https:\/\/youtu.be\/SQASyR0w8Qo\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">View this Slate video for a closer look at how memory works, as well as how researchers are now studying H. M.\u2019s brain.<\/a><\/section>\r\n<\/section>\r\n<section data-depth=\"1\"><\/section>\r\n<section data-depth=\"1\">\r\n<div data-type=\"note\" data-label=\"Dig Deeper\">\r\n<div data-type=\"title\">\r\n<div data-type=\"title\">\r\n<section class=\"textbox tryIt\">[ohm2_question height=\"325\"]4207[\/ohm2_question]<\/section>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section>","rendered":"<section class=\"textbox learningGoals\">\n<ul>\n<li>Understand the functions of different brain parts in memory<\/li>\n<li>Compare and contrast anterograde and retrograde amnesia<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/section>\n<h2>Memory in the Brain<\/h2>\n<p data-start=\"479\" data-end=\"708\">Are memories stored in just one place in the brain\u2014or do they live everywhere? Early neuroscientists, including <strong data-start=\"593\" data-end=\"609\">Karl Lashley<\/strong>, tackled this question by searching for the <em data-start=\"654\" data-end=\"662\">engram<\/em>: the physical trace of a memory in the brain.<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"743\" data-end=\"990\">In the 1920s\u20131950s, Lashley trained rats to run mazes and then created lesions in different parts of their cerebral cortex to see if he could erase the maze memory. Surprisingly, the rats still remembered the maze, no matter which area he damaged.<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"992\" data-end=\"1051\">From this, he proposed the <strong data-start=\"1019\" data-end=\"1050\">equipotentiality hypothesis<\/strong>: i<span style=\"font-family: 'Public Sans', -apple-system, BlinkMacSystemFont, 'Segoe UI', Roboto, Oxygen-Sans, Ubuntu, Cantarell, 'Helvetica Neue', sans-serif;\">f one part of a brain region involved in memory is damaged, other parts can sometimes take over its function.<\/span><\/p>\n<p data-start=\"1171\" data-end=\"1500\">Although Lashley never found the engram, modern neuroscience has identified specific brain circuits involved in memory formation. Nobel Prize\u2013winning neuroscientist <strong data-start=\"1336\" data-end=\"1351\">Eric Kandel<\/strong> helped show that memories involve long-term changes at the synapse\u2014a process called <strong data-start=\"1436\" data-end=\"1468\">long-term potentiation (LTP)<\/strong>\u2014and not a single \u201cmemory spot.\u201d LTP strengthens the neural pathways that represent a memory, helping make that memory stable and long-lasting.<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"1502\" data-end=\"1539\">Today, scientists agree on two ideas:<\/p>\n<ol>\n<li data-start=\"1544\" data-end=\"1584\">Memory is not stored in one place.<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"1588\" data-end=\"1653\">Different brain structures support different types of memory.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<p data-start=\"1655\" data-end=\"1754\">The most important structures are the <strong data-start=\"1693\" data-end=\"1753\">amygdala, hippocampus, cerebellum, and prefrontal cortex<\/strong>.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<figure>\n<figure id=\"attachment_6841\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-6841\" style=\"width: 649px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/855\/2015\/02\/03165711\/ea9b2d0fcd8506c48d06546c88fb35f4d2f71429.jpeg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-6841 size-full\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/855\/2015\/02\/03165711\/ea9b2d0fcd8506c48d06546c88fb35f4d2f71429.jpeg\" alt=\"An illustration of a brain shows the location of the amygdala, hippocampus, cerebellum, and prefrontal cortex.\" width=\"649\" height=\"431\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-6841\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 1<\/strong>. The amygdala is involved in fear and fear memories. The hippocampus is associated with declarative and episodic memory as well as recognition memory. The cerebellum plays a role in processing procedural memories, such as how to play the piano. The prefrontal cortex appears to be involved in remembering semantic tasks.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/figure>\n<section data-depth=\"1\">\n<h2>Amygdala<\/h2>\n<p data-start=\"1860\" data-end=\"1998\">The amygdala helps regulate emotions like fear, anger, and excitement. These emotional states influence how strongly memories are encoded.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li data-start=\"2002\" data-end=\"2061\">Stress hormones such as adrenaline activate the amygdala.<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"2064\" data-end=\"2132\">Emotional events\u2014positive <em data-start=\"2090\" data-end=\"2094\">or<\/em> negative\u2014are remembered more vividly.<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"2135\" data-end=\"2216\">The amygdala is essential for <strong data-start=\"2165\" data-end=\"2186\">fear conditioning<\/strong> and other emotional learning.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p data-start=\"2218\" data-end=\"2362\">Research shows that when neurons in the amygdala connected to a specific fear memory are removed or disrupted, the memory weakens or disappears.<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"2218\" data-end=\"2362\">For example, one researcher experimented with rats and the fear response (Josselyn, 2010). Using Pavlovian conditioning, a neutral tone was paired with a foot shock to the rats. This produced a fear memory in the rats. After being conditioned, each time they heard the tone, they would freeze (a defense response in rats), indicating a memory for the impending shock. Then the researchers induced cell death in neurons in the lateral amygdala, which is the specific area of the brain responsible for fear memories. They found the fear memory faded (became extinct).\u00a0<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"2364\" data-end=\"2473\">The amygdala also plays a role in <strong data-start=\"2398\" data-end=\"2422\">memory consolidation<\/strong>\u2014strengthening new memories so they last over time.<\/p>\n<section class=\"textbox linkToLearning\">In this TED Talk called <a href=\"https:\/\/www.ted.com\/talks\/steve_ramirez_and_xu_liu_a_mouse_a_laser_beam_a_manipulated_memory\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">\u201cA Mouse. A Laser Beam. A Manipulated Memory,\u201d<\/a> Steve Ramirez and Xu Liu from MIT talk about using laser beams to manipulate fear memory in rats. Find out why their work caused a media frenzy once it was published in <em data-effect=\"italics\">Science<\/em>.<\/section>\n<div data-type=\"note\" data-label=\"Link to Learning\">\n<h2>Hippocampus<\/h2>\n<p data-start=\"2538\" data-end=\"2664\">The hippocampus is central to forming <strong data-start=\"2576\" data-end=\"2600\">declarative memories<\/strong>\u2014facts and personal experiences. It is especially important for:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li data-start=\"2668\" data-end=\"2713\">Episodic memory (events from your life)<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"2716\" data-end=\"2759\">Semantic memory (facts and knowledge)<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"2762\" data-end=\"2811\">Spatial memory (navigation, place learning)<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"2814\" data-end=\"2836\">Recognition memory<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p data-start=\"2838\" data-end=\"2958\">Lesion studies in rats and humans show that without a functioning hippocampus, new declarative memories cannot form. The most famous example is <strong data-start=\"2987\" data-end=\"3012\">Henry Molaison (H.M.)<\/strong>, who had large portions of his hippocampi removed to treat epilepsy. After surgery:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li data-start=\"3100\" data-end=\"3150\">He could remember events from before the surgery<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"3153\" data-end=\"3211\">But he could not form new long-term declarative memories<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"3214\" data-end=\"3271\">His procedural memory (skills and habits) stayed intact<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p data-start=\"3273\" data-end=\"3431\">The hippocampus does <strong data-start=\"3294\" data-end=\"3301\">not<\/strong> store memories permanently. Instead, it acts as a temporary \u201cloading dock,\u201d sending memories to the cortex for long-term storage.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<section class=\"textbox linkToLearning\"><a href=\"https:\/\/youtu.be\/SQASyR0w8Qo\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">View this Slate video for a closer look at how memory works, as well as how researchers are now studying H. M.\u2019s brain.<\/a><\/section>\n<\/section>\n<section data-depth=\"1\"><\/section>\n<section data-depth=\"1\">\n<div data-type=\"note\" data-label=\"Dig Deeper\">\n<div data-type=\"title\">\n<div data-type=\"title\">\n<section class=\"textbox tryIt\"><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"ohm4207\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/ohm.one.lumenlearning.com\/multiembedq.php?id=4207&theme=lumen&iframe_resize_id=ohm4207&source=tnh&show_question_numbers\" width=\"100%\" height=\"325\"><\/iframe><\/section>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n","protected":false},"author":20,"menu_order":10,"template":"","meta":{"_candela_citation":"[{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"Parts of the Brain Involved with Memory\",\"author\":\"OpenStax College\",\"organization\":\"\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/psychology-2e\/pages\/8-2-parts-of-the-brain-involved-with-memory\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by\",\"license_terms\":\"Download for free at https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/psychology-2e\/pages\/1-introduction\"},{\"type\":\"original\",\"description\":\"Modification, adaptation, and original content\",\"author\":\"\",\"organization\":\"Lumen Learning\",\"url\":\"\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by\",\"license_terms\":\"\"}]","pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[],"license":[],"part":628,"module-header":"learn_it","content_attributions":[{"type":"cc","description":"Parts of the Brain Involved with Memory","author":"OpenStax College","organization":"","url":"https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/psychology-2e\/pages\/8-2-parts-of-the-brain-involved-with-memory","project":"","license":"cc-by","license_terms":"Download for free at https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/psychology-2e\/pages\/1-introduction"},{"type":"original","description":"Modification, adaptation, and original content","author":"","organization":"Lumen Learning","url":"","project":"","license":"cc-by","license_terms":""}],"internal_book_links":[],"video_content":null,"cc_video_embed_content":{"cc_scripts":"","media_targets":[]},"try_it_collection":null,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/introductiontopsychology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/492"}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/introductiontopsychology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/introductiontopsychology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/introductiontopsychology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/20"}],"version-history":[{"count":11,"href":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/introductiontopsychology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/492\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":7237,"href":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/introductiontopsychology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/492\/revisions\/7237"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/introductiontopsychology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/628"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/introductiontopsychology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/492\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/introductiontopsychology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=492"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/introductiontopsychology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=492"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/introductiontopsychology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=492"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/introductiontopsychology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=492"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}