{"id":486,"date":"2023-03-03T19:12:49","date_gmt":"2023-03-03T19:12:49","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/introductiontopsychology\/chapter\/how-memory-functions\/"},"modified":"2025-11-17T16:41:27","modified_gmt":"2025-11-17T16:41:27","slug":"how-memory-functions","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/introductiontopsychology\/chapter\/how-memory-functions\/","title":{"raw":"How Memory Functions: Learn It 1\u2014Encoding","rendered":"How Memory Functions: Learn It 1\u2014Encoding"},"content":{"raw":"<section class=\"textbox learningGoals\">\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li>Explain how sensory information is encoded into memory<\/li>\r\n\t<li>Describe the three stages of memory storage<\/li>\r\n\t<li>Understand the difference between implicit and explicit memory and semantic and episodic memory<\/li>\r\n\t<li>Explain retrieval cues and the three types of retrieval<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/section>\r\n<h2>How Memory Works<\/h2>\r\n<p data-start=\"398\" data-end=\"616\">Memory is an <strong data-start=\"411\" data-end=\"444\">information-processing system<\/strong>, which is why it\u2019s often compared to a computer. But unlike a computer, human memory is selective, interpretive, and deeply influenced by meaning, emotion, and experience.<\/p>\r\n<section class=\"textbox keyTakeaway\">\r\n<h3>Memory and encoding<\/h3>\r\n<p><strong>Memory<\/strong> is the set of processes used to encode, store, and retrieve information over different periods of time.<\/p>\r\n<figure>\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"487\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/902\/2015\/02\/23224845\/CNX_Psych_08_01_Memory.jpg\" alt=\"A diagram shows three boxes, placed in a row from left to right, respectively titled \u201cEncoding,\u201d \u201cStorage,\u201d and \u201cRetrieval.\u201d One right-facing arrow connects \u201cEncoding\u201d to \u201cStorage\u201d and another connects \u201cStorage\u201d to \u201cRetrieval.\u201d\" width=\"487\" height=\"117\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/> <strong>Figure 1.<\/strong> Encoding involves the input of information into the memory system. Storage is the retention of the encoded information. Retrieval, or getting the information out of memory and back into awareness, is the third function.[\/caption]\r\n<\/figure>\r\n<p data-depth=\"1\">We get information into our brains through a process called <strong>encoding<\/strong>, which is the input of information into the memory system. Once we receive sensory information from the environment, our brains label or code it. We organize the information with other similar information and connect new concepts to existing concepts.<\/p>\r\n<\/section>\r\n<section data-depth=\"1\">Encoding information occurs through automatic processing and effortful processing.<\/section>\r\n<section data-depth=\"1\">\r\n<section class=\"textbox keyTakeaway\">\r\n<h3>automatic and effortful processing<\/h3>\r\n<p data-start=\"1441\" data-end=\"1667\"><strong data-start=\"1441\" data-end=\"1465\">Automatic processing<\/strong> happens without conscious effort. You likely remember what you ate for lunch, the route you take home, or the last time you listened to your favorite song\u2014all without trying. We automatically encode:<\/p>\r\n<ul data-start=\"1669\" data-end=\"1836\">\r\n\t<li data-start=\"1669\" data-end=\"1705\">\r\n<p data-start=\"1671\" data-end=\"1705\">time (\u201cI last studied at 10 p.m.\u201d)<\/p>\r\n<\/li>\r\n\t<li data-start=\"1706\" data-end=\"1743\">\r\n<p data-start=\"1708\" data-end=\"1743\">space (\u201cMy keys were on the table\u201d)<\/p>\r\n<\/li>\r\n\t<li data-start=\"1744\" data-end=\"1798\">\r\n<p data-start=\"1746\" data-end=\"1798\">frequency (\u201cI've heard that fact three times today\u201d)<\/p>\r\n<\/li>\r\n\t<li data-start=\"1799\" data-end=\"1836\">\r\n<p data-start=\"1801\" data-end=\"1836\">simple meanings of familiar words<\/p>\r\n<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<p data-start=\"1838\" data-end=\"2013\"><strong data-start=\"1838\" data-end=\"1862\">Effortful processing<\/strong>, in contrast, requires attention and work. Studying for an exam, learning a new concept, or memorizing definitions all rely on effortful processing. <br \/>\r\n<br \/>\r\n<span style=\"font-family: 'Public Sans', -apple-system, BlinkMacSystemFont, 'Segoe UI', Roboto, Oxygen-Sans, Ubuntu, Cantarell, 'Helvetica Neue', sans-serif;\">Remember: automatic processing helps us track the basics of daily life; effortful processing builds the deeper memories needed for learning.<\/span><\/p>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"487\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/902\/2015\/02\/23224846\/CNX_Psych_08_01_Drivingn.jpg\" alt=\"A photograph shows a person driving a car.\" width=\"487\" height=\"298\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/> <strong>Figure 2<\/strong>. Recalling the route to your home demonstrates automatic processing. As you drive or walk home regularly, your brain automatically encodes the familiar landmarks, turns, and street names without conscious effort. You effortlessly navigate the route, relying on previously stored information, and arrive at your destination without actively thinking about each step of the way.(credit: Robert Couse-Baker)[\/caption]\r\n<\/section>\r\n<\/section>\r\n<section data-depth=\"1\">What are the most effective ways to ensure that important memories are well encoded? Even a simple sentence is easier to recall when it is meaningful (Anderson, 1984).\r\n\r\n<section class=\"textbox tryIt\">Read the following sentences (Bransford &amp; McCarrell, 1974), then look away and count backward from 30 by threes to zero, and then try to write down the sentences (no peeking back at this page!).\r\n\r\n<ol data-number-=\"\">\r\n\t<li>The notes were sour because the seams split.<\/li>\r\n\t<li>The voyage wasn't delayed because the bottle shattered.<\/li>\r\n\t<li>The haystack was important because the cloth ripped.<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<p>How well did you do? By themselves, the statements that you wrote down were most likely confusing and difficult for you to recall. Now, try writing them again, using the \"answers\" shown below:<\/p>\r\n<p>[reveal-answer q=\"733537\"]Show Answer[\/reveal-answer]<br \/>\r\n[hidden-answer a=\"733537\"]Consider these context clues: bagpipe, ship christening (shattering a bottle over the bow of the ship is a symbol of good luck), and parachutist.[\/hidden-answer]<\/p>\r\n<p>Next, count backwards from 40 by fours, then check yourself to see how well you recalled the sentences this time. You can see that the sentences are now much more memorable because each of the sentences was placed in context. Material is far better encoded when you make it meaningful.<\/p>\r\n<\/section>\r\n<section class=\"textbox tryIt\">[ohm2_question height=\"200\"]4203[\/ohm2_question]<\/section>\r\n<h2 data-start=\"2901\" data-end=\"2931\"><strong data-start=\"2904\" data-end=\"2931\">Types of Encoding<\/strong><\/h2>\r\n<p>There are three types of encoding: semantic, visual, and acoustic.<\/p>\r\n<section class=\"textbox keyTakeaway\">\r\n<h3>semantic encoding<\/h3>\r\n<p>The encoding of words and their meaning is known as <strong>semantic encoding<\/strong>. Semantic means \u201cmeaning,\u201d so semantic encoding refers to mentally processing the meaning of information.<\/p>\r\n<\/section>\r\n<p>Semantic coding was first demonstrated by William Bousfield (1935) in an experiment in which he asked people to memorize words.<\/p>\r\n<p>The 60 words were actually divided into 4 categories of meaning, although the participants did not know this because the words were randomly presented. When they were asked to remember the words, they tended to recall them in categories, showing that they paid attention to the meanings of the words as they learned them.<\/p>\r\n<section class=\"textbox keyTakeaway\">\r\n<h3>visual encoding<\/h3>\r\n<p><strong>Visual encoding<\/strong> is the encoding of images. It involves encoding information based on its visual characteristics and appearance. It emphasizes the visual details of an item or concept. For instance, if you are trying to remember a picture of a beautiful sunset, visual encoding involves mentally capturing and storing the colors, shapes, and scenery of the sunset.<\/p>\r\n<\/section>\r\n<section class=\"textbox example\" aria-label=\"Example\">\r\n<h3>Visual Encoding Example<\/h3>\r\n<section>To see how visual encoding works, read over this list of words: <em data-effect=\"italics\">car, level, dog, truth, book, value<\/em>. <br \/>\r\n<br \/>\r\nIf you were asked later to recall the words from this list, which ones do you think you\u2019d most likely remember? You would probably have an easier time recalling the words <em data-effect=\"italics\">car, dog,<\/em> and <em data-effect=\"italics\">book<\/em>, and a more difficult time recalling the words <em data-effect=\"italics\">level, truth,<\/em> and <em data-effect=\"italics\">value<\/em>. Why is this? Because you can recall images (mental pictures) more easily than words alone. <br \/>\r\n<br \/>\r\nWhen you read the words <em data-effect=\"italics\">car, dog,<\/em> and <em data-effect=\"italics\">book,<\/em> you created images of these things in your mind. These are concrete, high-imagery words. On the other hand, abstract words like <em data-effect=\"italics\">level, truth,<\/em> and <em data-effect=\"italics\">value<\/em> are low-imagery words. High-imagery words are encoded both visually and semantically (Paivio, 1986), thus building a stronger memory.<\/section>\r\n<\/section>\r\n<section><\/section>\r\n<section class=\"textbox keyTakeaway\">\r\n<h3>acoustic encoding<\/h3>\r\n<p><strong>Acoustic encoding<\/strong> is the encoding of sounds.<\/p>\r\n<\/section>\r\n<section class=\"textbox example\" aria-label=\"Example\">\r\n<h3>Acoustic Encoding Example<\/h3>\r\n<p>Here's an example of acoustic encoding. You are driving in your car and a song comes on the radio that you haven\u2019t heard in at least 10 years, but you sing along, recalling every word. In the United States, children often learn the alphabet through song, and they learn the number of days in each month through rhyme: <em data-effect=\"italics\">\u201c<\/em>Thirty days hath September, \/ April, June, and November; \/ All the rest have thirty-one, \/ Save February, with twenty-eight days clear, \/ And twenty-nine each leap year.\u201d<\/p>\r\n<p>These lessons are easy to remember because of acoustic encoding. We encode the sounds the words make. This is one of the reasons why much of what we teach young children is done through song, rhyme, and rhythm.<\/p>\r\n<\/section>\r\n<h2>The Best Way to Encode<\/h2>\r\n<p>Which of the three types of encoding do you think would give you the best memory of verbal information?<\/p>\r\n<p>Some years ago, psychologists Fergus Craik and Endel Tulving (1975) conducted a series of experiments to find out. Participants were given words along with questions about them. The questions required the participants to process the words at one of the three levels.<\/p>\r\n<p>The visual processing questions included such things as asking the participants about the font of the letters.<\/p>\r\n<p>The acoustic processing questions asked the participants about the sound or rhyming of the words, and the semantic processing questions asked the participants about the meaning of the words. After participants were presented with the words and questions, they were given an unexpected recall or recognition task.<\/p>\r\n<p><strong>Words that had been encoded semantically were better remembered<\/strong> than those encoded visually or acoustically. Semantic encoding involves a deeper level of processing than the shallower visual or acoustic encoding.<\/p>\r\n<p>Craik and Tulving concluded that we process verbal information best through semantic encoding, especially if we apply what is called the self-reference effect.<\/p>\r\n<p>The <strong>self-reference effect<\/strong> is the tendency for an individual to have better memory for information that relates to oneself in comparison to material that has less personal relevance (Rogers, Kuiper, &amp; Kirker, 1977).<\/p>\r\n<p>You can easily apply the self-reference effect when learning for your classes by relating the things you learn to your own life. For example, can you think of things you've learned through semantic, visual, or acoustic encoding? What are examples of things today where you've used automatic processing or effortful processing?<\/p>\r\n<div class=\"ab-test-alternative\">\r\n<section data-depth=\"1\">\r\n<section class=\"textbox tryIt\">[ohm2_question height=\"300\"]4204[\/ohm2_question]<\/section>\r\n<\/section>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section>","rendered":"<section class=\"textbox learningGoals\">\n<ul>\n<li>Explain how sensory information is encoded into memory<\/li>\n<li>Describe the three stages of memory storage<\/li>\n<li>Understand the difference between implicit and explicit memory and semantic and episodic memory<\/li>\n<li>Explain retrieval cues and the three types of retrieval<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/section>\n<h2>How Memory Works<\/h2>\n<p data-start=\"398\" data-end=\"616\">Memory is an <strong data-start=\"411\" data-end=\"444\">information-processing system<\/strong>, which is why it\u2019s often compared to a computer. But unlike a computer, human memory is selective, interpretive, and deeply influenced by meaning, emotion, and experience.<\/p>\n<section class=\"textbox keyTakeaway\">\n<h3>Memory and encoding<\/h3>\n<p><strong>Memory<\/strong> is the set of processes used to encode, store, and retrieve information over different periods of time.<\/p>\n<figure>\n<figure style=\"width: 487px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/902\/2015\/02\/23224845\/CNX_Psych_08_01_Memory.jpg\" alt=\"A diagram shows three boxes, placed in a row from left to right, respectively titled \u201cEncoding,\u201d \u201cStorage,\u201d and \u201cRetrieval.\u201d One right-facing arrow connects \u201cEncoding\u201d to \u201cStorage\u201d and another connects \u201cStorage\u201d to \u201cRetrieval.\u201d\" width=\"487\" height=\"117\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 1.<\/strong> Encoding involves the input of information into the memory system. Storage is the retention of the encoded information. Retrieval, or getting the information out of memory and back into awareness, is the third function.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/figure>\n<p data-depth=\"1\">We get information into our brains through a process called <strong>encoding<\/strong>, which is the input of information into the memory system. Once we receive sensory information from the environment, our brains label or code it. We organize the information with other similar information and connect new concepts to existing concepts.<\/p>\n<\/section>\n<section data-depth=\"1\">Encoding information occurs through automatic processing and effortful processing.<\/section>\n<section data-depth=\"1\">\n<section class=\"textbox keyTakeaway\">\n<h3>automatic and effortful processing<\/h3>\n<p data-start=\"1441\" data-end=\"1667\"><strong data-start=\"1441\" data-end=\"1465\">Automatic processing<\/strong> happens without conscious effort. You likely remember what you ate for lunch, the route you take home, or the last time you listened to your favorite song\u2014all without trying. We automatically encode:<\/p>\n<ul data-start=\"1669\" data-end=\"1836\">\n<li data-start=\"1669\" data-end=\"1705\">\n<p data-start=\"1671\" data-end=\"1705\">time (\u201cI last studied at 10 p.m.\u201d)<\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"1706\" data-end=\"1743\">\n<p data-start=\"1708\" data-end=\"1743\">space (\u201cMy keys were on the table\u201d)<\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"1744\" data-end=\"1798\">\n<p data-start=\"1746\" data-end=\"1798\">frequency (\u201cI&#8217;ve heard that fact three times today\u201d)<\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"1799\" data-end=\"1836\">\n<p data-start=\"1801\" data-end=\"1836\">simple meanings of familiar words<\/p>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p data-start=\"1838\" data-end=\"2013\"><strong data-start=\"1838\" data-end=\"1862\">Effortful processing<\/strong>, in contrast, requires attention and work. Studying for an exam, learning a new concept, or memorizing definitions all rely on effortful processing. <\/p>\n<p><span style=\"font-family: 'Public Sans', -apple-system, BlinkMacSystemFont, 'Segoe UI', Roboto, Oxygen-Sans, Ubuntu, Cantarell, 'Helvetica Neue', sans-serif;\">Remember: automatic processing helps us track the basics of daily life; effortful processing builds the deeper memories needed for learning.<\/span><\/p>\n<figure style=\"width: 487px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/courses-images-archive-read-only\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/902\/2015\/02\/23224846\/CNX_Psych_08_01_Drivingn.jpg\" alt=\"A photograph shows a person driving a car.\" width=\"487\" height=\"298\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 2<\/strong>. Recalling the route to your home demonstrates automatic processing. As you drive or walk home regularly, your brain automatically encodes the familiar landmarks, turns, and street names without conscious effort. You effortlessly navigate the route, relying on previously stored information, and arrive at your destination without actively thinking about each step of the way.(credit: Robert Couse-Baker)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/section>\n<\/section>\n<section data-depth=\"1\">What are the most effective ways to ensure that important memories are well encoded? Even a simple sentence is easier to recall when it is meaningful (Anderson, 1984).<\/p>\n<section class=\"textbox tryIt\">Read the following sentences (Bransford &amp; McCarrell, 1974), then look away and count backward from 30 by threes to zero, and then try to write down the sentences (no peeking back at this page!).<\/p>\n<ol data-number-=\"\">\n<li>The notes were sour because the seams split.<\/li>\n<li>The voyage wasn&#8217;t delayed because the bottle shattered.<\/li>\n<li>The haystack was important because the cloth ripped.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<p>How well did you do? By themselves, the statements that you wrote down were most likely confusing and difficult for you to recall. Now, try writing them again, using the &#8220;answers&#8221; shown below:<\/p>\n<p><div class=\"qa-wrapper\" style=\"display: block\"><button class=\"show-answer show-answer-button collapsed\" data-target=\"q733537\">Show Answer<\/button><\/p>\n<div id=\"q733537\" class=\"hidden-answer\" style=\"display: none\">Consider these context clues: bagpipe, ship christening (shattering a bottle over the bow of the ship is a symbol of good luck), and parachutist.<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p>Next, count backwards from 40 by fours, then check yourself to see how well you recalled the sentences this time. You can see that the sentences are now much more memorable because each of the sentences was placed in context. Material is far better encoded when you make it meaningful.<\/p>\n<\/section>\n<section class=\"textbox tryIt\"><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"ohm4203\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/ohm.one.lumenlearning.com\/multiembedq.php?id=4203&theme=lumen&iframe_resize_id=ohm4203&source=tnh&show_question_numbers\" width=\"100%\" height=\"200\"><\/iframe><\/section>\n<h2 data-start=\"2901\" data-end=\"2931\"><strong data-start=\"2904\" data-end=\"2931\">Types of Encoding<\/strong><\/h2>\n<p>There are three types of encoding: semantic, visual, and acoustic.<\/p>\n<section class=\"textbox keyTakeaway\">\n<h3>semantic encoding<\/h3>\n<p>The encoding of words and their meaning is known as <strong>semantic encoding<\/strong>. Semantic means \u201cmeaning,\u201d so semantic encoding refers to mentally processing the meaning of information.<\/p>\n<\/section>\n<p>Semantic coding was first demonstrated by William Bousfield (1935) in an experiment in which he asked people to memorize words.<\/p>\n<p>The 60 words were actually divided into 4 categories of meaning, although the participants did not know this because the words were randomly presented. When they were asked to remember the words, they tended to recall them in categories, showing that they paid attention to the meanings of the words as they learned them.<\/p>\n<section class=\"textbox keyTakeaway\">\n<h3>visual encoding<\/h3>\n<p><strong>Visual encoding<\/strong> is the encoding of images. It involves encoding information based on its visual characteristics and appearance. It emphasizes the visual details of an item or concept. For instance, if you are trying to remember a picture of a beautiful sunset, visual encoding involves mentally capturing and storing the colors, shapes, and scenery of the sunset.<\/p>\n<\/section>\n<section class=\"textbox example\" aria-label=\"Example\">\n<h3>Visual Encoding Example<\/h3>\n<section>To see how visual encoding works, read over this list of words: <em data-effect=\"italics\">car, level, dog, truth, book, value<\/em>. <\/p>\n<p>If you were asked later to recall the words from this list, which ones do you think you\u2019d most likely remember? You would probably have an easier time recalling the words <em data-effect=\"italics\">car, dog,<\/em> and <em data-effect=\"italics\">book<\/em>, and a more difficult time recalling the words <em data-effect=\"italics\">level, truth,<\/em> and <em data-effect=\"italics\">value<\/em>. Why is this? Because you can recall images (mental pictures) more easily than words alone. <\/p>\n<p>When you read the words <em data-effect=\"italics\">car, dog,<\/em> and <em data-effect=\"italics\">book,<\/em> you created images of these things in your mind. These are concrete, high-imagery words. On the other hand, abstract words like <em data-effect=\"italics\">level, truth,<\/em> and <em data-effect=\"italics\">value<\/em> are low-imagery words. High-imagery words are encoded both visually and semantically (Paivio, 1986), thus building a stronger memory.<\/section>\n<\/section>\n<section><\/section>\n<section class=\"textbox keyTakeaway\">\n<h3>acoustic encoding<\/h3>\n<p><strong>Acoustic encoding<\/strong> is the encoding of sounds.<\/p>\n<\/section>\n<section class=\"textbox example\" aria-label=\"Example\">\n<h3>Acoustic Encoding Example<\/h3>\n<p>Here&#8217;s an example of acoustic encoding. You are driving in your car and a song comes on the radio that you haven\u2019t heard in at least 10 years, but you sing along, recalling every word. In the United States, children often learn the alphabet through song, and they learn the number of days in each month through rhyme: <em data-effect=\"italics\">\u201c<\/em>Thirty days hath September, \/ April, June, and November; \/ All the rest have thirty-one, \/ Save February, with twenty-eight days clear, \/ And twenty-nine each leap year.\u201d<\/p>\n<p>These lessons are easy to remember because of acoustic encoding. We encode the sounds the words make. This is one of the reasons why much of what we teach young children is done through song, rhyme, and rhythm.<\/p>\n<\/section>\n<h2>The Best Way to Encode<\/h2>\n<p>Which of the three types of encoding do you think would give you the best memory of verbal information?<\/p>\n<p>Some years ago, psychologists Fergus Craik and Endel Tulving (1975) conducted a series of experiments to find out. Participants were given words along with questions about them. The questions required the participants to process the words at one of the three levels.<\/p>\n<p>The visual processing questions included such things as asking the participants about the font of the letters.<\/p>\n<p>The acoustic processing questions asked the participants about the sound or rhyming of the words, and the semantic processing questions asked the participants about the meaning of the words. After participants were presented with the words and questions, they were given an unexpected recall or recognition task.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Words that had been encoded semantically were better remembered<\/strong> than those encoded visually or acoustically. Semantic encoding involves a deeper level of processing than the shallower visual or acoustic encoding.<\/p>\n<p>Craik and Tulving concluded that we process verbal information best through semantic encoding, especially if we apply what is called the self-reference effect.<\/p>\n<p>The <strong>self-reference effect<\/strong> is the tendency for an individual to have better memory for information that relates to oneself in comparison to material that has less personal relevance (Rogers, Kuiper, &amp; Kirker, 1977).<\/p>\n<p>You can easily apply the self-reference effect when learning for your classes by relating the things you learn to your own life. For example, can you think of things you&#8217;ve learned through semantic, visual, or acoustic encoding? 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