{"id":1212,"date":"2023-03-31T17:37:44","date_gmt":"2023-03-31T17:37:44","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/introductiontopsychology\/chapter\/evaluating-employees\/"},"modified":"2026-01-15T22:07:20","modified_gmt":"2026-01-15T22:07:20","slug":"evaluating-employees","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/introductiontopsychology\/chapter\/evaluating-employees\/","title":{"raw":"Workplace Design and Bias: Learn It 1\u2014Bias and Discrimination in the Workforce","rendered":"Workplace Design and Bias: Learn It 1\u2014Bias and Discrimination in the Workforce"},"content":{"raw":"<section class=\"textbox learningGoals\">\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li>Identify types of bias and discrimination that occur in the workplace<\/li>\r\n\t<li>Describe the laws designed to prevent bias and discrimination in hiring<\/li>\r\n\t<li>Describe the field of human factors psychology<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/section>\r\n<h2 class=\"text-text-100 mt-3 -mb-1 text-[1.125rem] font-bold\">Bias and Discrimination in Hiring<\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body break-words whitespace-normal leading-[1.7]\">In an ideal hiring process, organizations would generate accurate job analyses reflecting position requirements and assess candidates' knowledge, skills, and abilities (KSAs) to identify the best person for the job. In practice, hiring decisions are often influenced by factors unrelated to job qualifications.<\/p>\r\n<h3 class=\"text-text-100 mt-2 -mb-1 text-base font-bold\">Sources of Bias in Selection<\/h3>\r\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body break-words whitespace-normal leading-[1.7]\">Research has identified numerous factors that can bias hiring decisions. Interviewers tend to favor candidates who are similar to themselves (Bye, Horverak, Sandal, Sam, &amp; Vijver, 2014) and may unconsciously discriminate based on regional accents (Raki\u0107, Steffens, &amp; Mummendey, 2011). Physical characteristics also influence decisions: Agerstr\u00f6m and Rooth (2011) found that hiring managers with stronger implicit weight bias were less likely to invite overweight candidates for interviews, even when qualifications were identical. Meta-analytic research confirms that physical attractiveness benefits candidates across hiring, promotion, and performance evaluations, though these effects have diminished somewhat over recent decades (Hosoda, Stone-Romero, &amp; Coats, 2003).<\/p>\r\n<h3 class=\"text-text-100 mt-2 -mb-1 text-base font-bold\">Persistent Discrimination<\/h3>\r\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body break-words whitespace-normal leading-[1.7]\">Despite decades of anti-discrimination laws, research documents ongoing bias in hiring. A comprehensive 2023 meta-analysis synthesizing correspondence experiments (studies where researchers send identical resumes with names signaling different demographic groups) conducted between 2005 and 2020 found significant hiring discrimination across multiple protected categories. The research confirms that candidates with names associated with racial minorities consistently receive fewer callbacks than equally qualified candidates with white-associated names.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body break-words whitespace-normal leading-[1.7]\">This discrimination persists even as workforce demographics shift. In fiscal year 2024, the U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) received 88,531 new discrimination charges\u2014a 9% increase over the previous year. The agency secured nearly $700 million for victims of discrimination, the highest monetary recovery in recent history.<\/p>\r\n<h2 class=\"text-text-100 mt-3 -mb-1 text-[1.125rem] font-bold\">Legal Protections Against Discrimination<\/h2>\r\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body break-words whitespace-normal leading-[1.7]\">Some hiring criteria relate to group membership rather than individual abilities. Unless membership in a group directly affects job performance, decisions based on group membership constitute discrimination. Federal, state, and local laws in the United States prohibit hiring based on various group-membership criteria.<\/p>\r\n<h3 class=\"text-text-100 mt-2 -mb-1 text-base font-bold\">What Employers Cannot Ask<\/h3>\r\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body break-words whitespace-normal leading-[1.7]\">Many people are surprised to learn how many questions are legally off-limits in job interviews. Potential employers generally cannot ask about:<\/p>\r\n<ul class=\"[li_&amp;]:mb-0 [li_&amp;]:mt-1 [li_&amp;]:gap-1 [&amp;:not(:last-child)_ul]:pb-1 [&amp;:not(:last-child)_ol]:pb-1 list-disc flex flex-col gap-1 pl-8 mb-3\">\r\n\t<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words pl-2\">Age (for candidates 40 and older)<\/li>\r\n\t<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words pl-2\">Marital or family status (including whether you have children or plan to)<\/li>\r\n\t<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words pl-2\">National origin or citizenship (though employers can ask if you're legally authorized to work)<\/li>\r\n\t<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words pl-2\">Religion<\/li>\r\n\t<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words pl-2\">Race or ethnicity<\/li>\r\n\t<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words pl-2\">Disability status (though employers can ask whether you can perform essential job functions)<\/li>\r\n\t<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words pl-2\">Pregnancy (though employers can discuss job requirements)<\/li>\r\n\t<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words pl-2\">Genetic information<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body break-words whitespace-normal leading-[1.7]\">Employers also cannot ask questions that might indirectly reveal this information, such as where you were born, who you live with, or what year you graduated high school.<\/p>\r\n<h3 class=\"text-text-100 mt-2 -mb-1 text-base font-bold\">Key Federal Protections<\/h3>\r\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body break-words whitespace-normal leading-[1.7]\">Several federal laws form the foundation of employment discrimination protection:<\/p>\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li class=\"font-claude-response-body break-words whitespace-normal leading-[1.7]\"><strong>Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964<\/strong> prohibits discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex (including pregnancy, sexual orientation, and gender identity), and national origin.<\/li>\r\n\t<li class=\"font-claude-response-body break-words whitespace-normal leading-[1.7]\"><strong>The Age Discrimination in Employment Act (ADEA)<\/strong> protects workers 40 and older from discrimination based on age.<\/li>\r\n\t<li class=\"font-claude-response-body break-words whitespace-normal leading-[1.7]\"><strong>The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA)<\/strong> prohibits discrimination against qualified individuals with disabilities and requires employers to provide reasonable accommodations.<\/li>\r\n\t<li class=\"font-claude-response-body break-words whitespace-normal leading-[1.7]\"><strong>The Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act (GINA)<\/strong> prohibits discrimination based on genetic information, including family medical history.<\/li>\r\n\t<li class=\"font-claude-response-body break-words whitespace-normal leading-[1.7]\"><strong>The Pregnant Workers Fairness Act (PWFA)<\/strong>, enacted in 2023, requires employers to provide reasonable accommodations for workers with limitations related to pregnancy, childbirth, or related medical conditions, unless doing so would cause undue hardship.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<p>We'll take a closer look at some of these laws soon.<\/p>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"975\"]<img src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/ospsych\/m49135\/CNX_Psych_13_02_Discrimin.jpg#fixme\" alt=\"Photograph A shows the side profile of a pregnant woman. Photograph B shows a cross, a star of David, and a crescent displayed next to one another. Photograph C shows an older person with a cane walking down the street.\" width=\"975\" height=\"292\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/> <strong>Figure 1<\/strong>. (a) Pregnancy, (b) religion, and (c) age are some of the criteria on which hiring decisions cannot legally be made. (credit a: modification of work by Sean McGrath; credit b: modification of work by Ze\u2019ev Barkan; credit c: modification of work by David Hodgson)[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<section data-depth=\"1\">\r\n<div data-type=\"note\" data-label=\"What Do You Think?\">\r\n<section class=\"textbox tryIt\">[ohm2_question height=\"450\"]4427[\/ohm2_question]<\/section>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/section>","rendered":"<section class=\"textbox learningGoals\">\n<ul>\n<li>Identify types of bias and discrimination that occur in the workplace<\/li>\n<li>Describe the laws designed to prevent bias and discrimination in hiring<\/li>\n<li>Describe the field of human factors psychology<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/section>\n<h2 class=\"text-text-100 mt-3 -mb-1 text-[1.125rem] font-bold\">Bias and Discrimination in Hiring<\/h2>\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body break-words whitespace-normal leading-[1.7]\">In an ideal hiring process, organizations would generate accurate job analyses reflecting position requirements and assess candidates&#8217; knowledge, skills, and abilities (KSAs) to identify the best person for the job. In practice, hiring decisions are often influenced by factors unrelated to job qualifications.<\/p>\n<h3 class=\"text-text-100 mt-2 -mb-1 text-base font-bold\">Sources of Bias in Selection<\/h3>\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body break-words whitespace-normal leading-[1.7]\">Research has identified numerous factors that can bias hiring decisions. Interviewers tend to favor candidates who are similar to themselves (Bye, Horverak, Sandal, Sam, &amp; Vijver, 2014) and may unconsciously discriminate based on regional accents (Raki\u0107, Steffens, &amp; Mummendey, 2011). Physical characteristics also influence decisions: Agerstr\u00f6m and Rooth (2011) found that hiring managers with stronger implicit weight bias were less likely to invite overweight candidates for interviews, even when qualifications were identical. Meta-analytic research confirms that physical attractiveness benefits candidates across hiring, promotion, and performance evaluations, though these effects have diminished somewhat over recent decades (Hosoda, Stone-Romero, &amp; Coats, 2003).<\/p>\n<h3 class=\"text-text-100 mt-2 -mb-1 text-base font-bold\">Persistent Discrimination<\/h3>\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body break-words whitespace-normal leading-[1.7]\">Despite decades of anti-discrimination laws, research documents ongoing bias in hiring. A comprehensive 2023 meta-analysis synthesizing correspondence experiments (studies where researchers send identical resumes with names signaling different demographic groups) conducted between 2005 and 2020 found significant hiring discrimination across multiple protected categories. The research confirms that candidates with names associated with racial minorities consistently receive fewer callbacks than equally qualified candidates with white-associated names.<\/p>\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body break-words whitespace-normal leading-[1.7]\">This discrimination persists even as workforce demographics shift. In fiscal year 2024, the U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) received 88,531 new discrimination charges\u2014a 9% increase over the previous year. The agency secured nearly $700 million for victims of discrimination, the highest monetary recovery in recent history.<\/p>\n<h2 class=\"text-text-100 mt-3 -mb-1 text-[1.125rem] font-bold\">Legal Protections Against Discrimination<\/h2>\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body break-words whitespace-normal leading-[1.7]\">Some hiring criteria relate to group membership rather than individual abilities. Unless membership in a group directly affects job performance, decisions based on group membership constitute discrimination. Federal, state, and local laws in the United States prohibit hiring based on various group-membership criteria.<\/p>\n<h3 class=\"text-text-100 mt-2 -mb-1 text-base font-bold\">What Employers Cannot Ask<\/h3>\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body break-words whitespace-normal leading-[1.7]\">Many people are surprised to learn how many questions are legally off-limits in job interviews. Potential employers generally cannot ask about:<\/p>\n<ul class=\"[li_&amp;]:mb-0 [li_&amp;]:mt-1 [li_&amp;]:gap-1 [&amp;:not(:last-child)_ul]:pb-1 [&amp;:not(:last-child)_ol]:pb-1 list-disc flex flex-col gap-1 pl-8 mb-3\">\n<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words pl-2\">Age (for candidates 40 and older)<\/li>\n<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words pl-2\">Marital or family status (including whether you have children or plan to)<\/li>\n<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words pl-2\">National origin or citizenship (though employers can ask if you&#8217;re legally authorized to work)<\/li>\n<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words pl-2\">Religion<\/li>\n<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words pl-2\">Race or ethnicity<\/li>\n<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words pl-2\">Disability status (though employers can ask whether you can perform essential job functions)<\/li>\n<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words pl-2\">Pregnancy (though employers can discuss job requirements)<\/li>\n<li class=\"whitespace-normal break-words pl-2\">Genetic information<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body break-words whitespace-normal leading-[1.7]\">Employers also cannot ask questions that might indirectly reveal this information, such as where you were born, who you live with, or what year you graduated high school.<\/p>\n<h3 class=\"text-text-100 mt-2 -mb-1 text-base font-bold\">Key Federal Protections<\/h3>\n<p class=\"font-claude-response-body break-words whitespace-normal leading-[1.7]\">Several federal laws form the foundation of employment discrimination protection:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li class=\"font-claude-response-body break-words whitespace-normal leading-[1.7]\"><strong>Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964<\/strong> prohibits discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex (including pregnancy, sexual orientation, and gender identity), and national origin.<\/li>\n<li class=\"font-claude-response-body break-words whitespace-normal leading-[1.7]\"><strong>The Age Discrimination in Employment Act (ADEA)<\/strong> protects workers 40 and older from discrimination based on age.<\/li>\n<li class=\"font-claude-response-body break-words whitespace-normal leading-[1.7]\"><strong>The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA)<\/strong> prohibits discrimination against qualified individuals with disabilities and requires employers to provide reasonable accommodations.<\/li>\n<li class=\"font-claude-response-body break-words whitespace-normal leading-[1.7]\"><strong>The Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act (GINA)<\/strong> prohibits discrimination based on genetic information, including family medical history.<\/li>\n<li class=\"font-claude-response-body break-words whitespace-normal leading-[1.7]\"><strong>The Pregnant Workers Fairness Act (PWFA)<\/strong>, enacted in 2023, requires employers to provide reasonable accommodations for workers with limitations related to pregnancy, childbirth, or related medical conditions, unless doing so would cause undue hardship.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>We&#8217;ll take a closer look at some of these laws soon.<\/p>\n<figure style=\"width: 975px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/textimgs.s3.amazonaws.com\/ospsych\/m49135\/CNX_Psych_13_02_Discrimin.jpg#fixme\" alt=\"Photograph A shows the side profile of a pregnant woman. Photograph B shows a cross, a star of David, and a crescent displayed next to one another. Photograph C shows an older person with a cane walking down the street.\" width=\"975\" height=\"292\" data-media-type=\"image\/jpeg\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure 1<\/strong>. (a) Pregnancy, (b) religion, and (c) age are some of the criteria on which hiring decisions cannot legally be made. (credit a: modification of work by Sean McGrath; credit b: modification of work by Ze\u2019ev Barkan; credit c: modification of work by David Hodgson)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<section data-depth=\"1\">\n<div data-type=\"note\" data-label=\"What Do You Think?\">\n<section class=\"textbox tryIt\"><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"ohm4427\" class=\"resizable\" src=\"https:\/\/ohm.one.lumenlearning.com\/multiembedq.php?id=4427&theme=lumen&iframe_resize_id=ohm4427&source=tnh&show_question_numbers\" width=\"100%\" height=\"450\"><\/iframe><\/section>\n<\/div>\n<\/section>\n","protected":false},"author":20,"menu_order":20,"template":"","meta":{"_candela_citation":"[{\"type\":\"cc\",\"description\":\"Industrial Psychology: Selecting and Evaluating Employees\",\"author\":\"OpenStax College\",\"organization\":\"\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/psychology-2e\/pages\/13-2-industrial-psychology-selecting-and-evaluating-employees\",\"project\":\"\",\"license\":\"cc-by\",\"license_terms\":\"Download for free at https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/psychology-2e\/pages\/1-introduction\"}]","pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[],"license":[],"part":1192,"module-header":"learn_it","content_attributions":[{"type":"cc","description":"Industrial Psychology: Selecting and Evaluating Employees","author":"OpenStax College","organization":"","url":"https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/psychology-2e\/pages\/13-2-industrial-psychology-selecting-and-evaluating-employees","project":"","license":"cc-by","license_terms":"Download for free at https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/psychology-2e\/pages\/1-introduction"}],"internal_book_links":[],"video_content":null,"cc_video_embed_content":{"cc_scripts":"","media_targets":[]},"try_it_collection":null,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/introductiontopsychology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/1212"}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/introductiontopsychology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/introductiontopsychology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/introductiontopsychology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/20"}],"version-history":[{"count":9,"href":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/introductiontopsychology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/1212\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":7541,"href":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/introductiontopsychology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/1212\/revisions\/7541"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/introductiontopsychology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/1192"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/introductiontopsychology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/1212\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/introductiontopsychology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=1212"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/introductiontopsychology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=1212"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/introductiontopsychology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=1212"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/introductiontopsychology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=1212"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}