Sexual Orientation
As mentioned earlier, a person’s sexual orientation is their emotional and erotic attraction toward another individual. While the majority of people identify as heterosexual, there is a sizable population of people within the United States who identify as gay or lesbian, bisexual, pansexual, asexual, or other non-hetero sexualities. A 2022 Gallup poll concluded that 7.1% of adult Americans identified as LGBT (lesbian, gay, bisexual, or trans).[1]
sexual orientations
These are most of the commonly referenced sexual orientations, though not a comprehensive list:
- homosexual: emotional and erotic attractions to same-sexed individuals, also referred to as “gay”, or “lesbian”
- heterosexual: emotional and erotic attractions to individuals of another sex, also referred to as “straight”
- bisexual: emotional and erotic attractions to both same-sexed individuals and individuals of another sex
- asexual: individuals who do not experience sexual attraction or have little or no interest in sexual activity
- demisexual: individuals who require an emotional connection in order to develop sexual attraction (note that both demisexuality and asexuality exist on a spectrum).
Additional categories may be used to categorize the more nuanced aspects of sexual identity, including (but not limited to):
- pansexual: individuals who experience attraction in which sex, gender identity, or gender expression do not play a role
- polysexual: individuals who experience attraction to many, but not all genders (sometimes used instead of bisexual).
- queer: an umbrella term for people who don’t identify as heterosexual, or whose attraction isn’t based on gender or sex
The term sexual preference is sometimes used informally but is generally avoided in scientific contexts because it can imply voluntary choice. Sexual orientation, in contrast, is understood as a stable aspect of identity rather than a behavior one selects.
Biological and Environmental Factors
For decades, scientists have explored the origins of sexual orientation. Early theories focused on upbringing and socialization, but extensive research has shown that family background and childhood environment are not predictive of orientation (Bell, Weinberg, & Hammersmith, 1981).
Current research supports a biopsychosocial model, emphasizing biological influences that interact with environmental and developmental factors. Studies have found:
- Genetic contributions: Twin and genome studies suggest that genes account for a portion—though not all—of the variation in human sexual orientation (Bailey et al., 2016). Some researchers estimate that genes account for at least half of the variability seen in human sexual orientation (Pillard & Bailey, 1998).
- Brain structure differences: Some studies report differences in hypothalamic and cortical structures between heterosexual and gay/lesbian participants (LeVay, 1991; Byne et al., 2001).
- Prenatal hormone exposure: Variations in prenatal androgen levels may influence later sexual orientation, though findings remain mixed.
- Epigenetic and environmental factors: Contemporary models propose that gene–environment interactions shape development, rather than a single “gay gene” or hormonal cause.
Overall, the consensus across major scientific organizations is that sexual orientation is not a choice, and efforts to link it exclusively to socialization have not held up under empirical scrutiny. There is considerably more evidence supporting nonsocial, biological causes of sexual orientation than social ones, especially for males.[2] Scientists do not necessarily believe that sexual orientation is a choice,[3] with some researchers even claiming that it is established at conception.[4]
Misunderstandings About Sexual Orientation
Scientific research consistently shows that sexual orientation is a stable trait, not something that can be voluntarily changed. Claims that orientation can be altered through “conversion” or “reparative” therapy lack credible evidence and have been widely discredited.
Conversion Therapy
Dr. Robert Spitzer, the author of one of the most widely-cited examples of successful conversion therapy, apologized to both the scientific community and the gay community for his mistakes, and he publically recanted his own paper in a public letter addressed to the editor of Archives of Sexual Behavior in the spring of 2012 (Carey, 2012). In this letter, Spitzer wrote,
I was considering writing something that would acknowledge that I now judge the major critiques of the study as largely correct. . . . I believe I owe the gay community an apology for my study making unproven claims of the efficacy of reparative therapy. I also apologize to any gay person who wasted time or energy undergoing some form of reparative therapy because they believed that I had proven that reparative therapy works with some “highly motivated” individuals. (Becker, 2012, pars. 2, 5)
Citing research that suggests not only that gay conversion therapy is ineffective, but also potentially harmful, legislative efforts to make such therapy illegal have either been enacted (e.g., it is now illegal in California) or are underway across the United States. Many professional organizations have also issued statements against this practice (Human Rights Campaign, n.d.)
Subsequent research demonstrates that conversion therapy is not only ineffective but psychologically harmful, associated with increased depression, anxiety, and suicidality. In response, many professional organizations—including the American Psychological Association, American Psychiatric Association, and Human Rights Campaign—have issued formal statements opposing conversion therapy.
As of the mid-2020s, dozens of U.S. states and many countries have banned or restricted conversion therapy, particularly for minors.
- LGBT Identification in U.S. Ticks Up to 7.1%". Gallup. 17 Feb 2022. ↵
- Bailey JM, Vasey PL, Diamond LM, Breedlove SM, Vilain E, Epprecht M (2016). "Sexual Orientation, Controversy, and Science". Psychological Science in the Public Interest. 17 (21): 45–101. doi:10.1177/1529100616637616 ↵
- Gloria Kersey-Matusiak (2012). Delivering Culturally Competent Nursing Care. Springer Publishing Company. p. 169. ISBN 978-0826193810. Retrieved 10 February 2016. ↵
- Vare, Jonatha W., and Terry L. Norton. "Understanding Gay and Lesbian Youth: Sticks, Stones and Silence." Cleaning House 71.6 (1998): 327–31: Education Full Text (H.W. Wilson). Web. 19 April 2012. ↵