Sigmund Freud and Psychoanalytic Theory

Sigmund Freud (1856–1939), an Austrian neurologist, is one of the most famous figures in psychology. He studied patients diagnosed with “hysteria”—a term then used (mostly for women) to describe a wide range of physical and emotional symptoms without clear medical cause.
Freud proposed that these problems originated in the unconscious mind, a hidden storehouse of urges and feelings outside of awareness. He believed accessing the unconscious was key to resolving psychological distress. Techniques included dream analysis, free association (saying the first words that come to mind), and slips of the tongue (later called Freudian slips).
Freud’s psychoanalytic theory emphasized the unconscious and the role of early childhood experiences. His work shaped clinical psychology for decades. The broader psychodynamic perspective includes Freud’s ideas as well as those developed by his followers.

Id, Ego, and Superego
Freud’s structural model of personality divided the mind into three interacting systems:
- Id: unconscious drives such as sex and aggression.
- Ego: partly conscious, rational system that mediates between the id, superego, and external world.
- Superego: conscience, shaped by parents and society, with both conscious and unconscious elements.
Healthy functioning requires balance among these three forces. When the ego cannot mediate effectively, psychological distress results.
Psychosexual Theory of Development
Freud also proposed that personality develops through five psychosexual stages: oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital. Each stage centers on a body region (an erogenous zone) that drives pleasure-seeking. If children do not receive adequate nurturing at a stage, they may become fixated, carrying unresolved issues into adulthood.
Although most modern psychologists reject Freud’s psychosexual model, it highlighted how childhood experiences influence personality—an idea that remains important today.
Freud’s Legacy
Freud’s theories are both highly influential and controversial. He popularized psychoanalysis, a form of talk therapy focused on exploring experiences and the unconscious, which is still practiced in various forms. While many of his specific claims (like psychosexual stages) are disputed, his emphasis on the unconscious and early development shaped psychology, therapy, and even popular culture.