Motivation to engage in a given behavior can come from internal and/or external factors. Multiple theories have been put forward regarding motivation: biologically-oriented theories that say the need to maintain bodily homeostasis motivates behavior, Bandura’s idea that our sense of self-efficacy motivates behavior, and others that focus on social aspects of motivation. In this section, you’ll learn about these theories as well as the famous work of Abraham Maslow and his hierarchy of needs.

So why do we do the things we do? What motivations underlie our behaviors?

Motivation

Motivation describes the wants or needs that direct behavior toward a goal. In addition to biological motives (for example: hunger, thirst, pain avoidance), motivations can be intrinsic or extrinsic :

Intrinsic motivation arises from internal factors; intrinsically motivated behaviors are performed because of the sense of personal satisfaction that they bring.

Extrinsic motivation arises from external factors; extrinsically motivated behaviors are performed in order to receive something from others.

Think about why you are currently in college. Are you here because you enjoy learning and want to pursue an education to make yourself a more well-rounded individual? If so, then you are intrinsically motivated. However, if you are here because you want to get a college degree to make yourself more marketable for a high-paying career or to satisfy the demands of your parents, then your motivation is more extrinsic in nature.

Factors that Impact Motivation

In reality, our motivations are often a mix of both intrinsic and extrinsic factors, but the nature of the mix of these factors might change over time (often in ways that seem counter-intuitive). A person’s intrinsic motivations may be impacted by the presence of external motivation, and vice versa.

The overjustification effect

Have you ever heard the old adage: “Choose a job that you love, and you will never have to work a day in your life”? Some research suggests that this isn’t necessarily the case (Daniel & Esser, 1980; Deci, 1972; Deci, Koestner, & Ryan, 1999).

According to this research, receiving some sort of extrinsic reinforcement (i.e., getting paid) for engaging in behaviors that we enjoy leads to those behaviors being thought of as work no longer providing that same enjoyment. As a result, we might spend less time engaging in these reclassified behaviors in the absence of any extrinsic reinforcement.

This creates the overjustification effect—intrinsic motivation is diminished when extrinsic motivation is given. This can lead to extinguishing the intrinsic motivation and creating a dependence on extrinsic rewards for continued performance (Deci et al., 1999).

For example: Odessa loves baking, so in her free time, she bakes for fun. When a coworker in the store’s bakery department leaves his job, Odessa applies for his position and gets transferred to the bakery department. Although she enjoys what she does in her new job, after a few months, she no longer has much desire to concoct tasty treats in her free time. Baking has become work in a way that changes her motivation to do it (Figure 2).

Odessa has experienced the overjustification effect.

Other studies suggest that intrinsic motivation may not be so vulnerable to the effects of extrinsic reinforcements, and in fact, reinforcements such as verbal praise might actually increase intrinsic motivation (Arnold, 1976; Cameron & Pierce, 1994). In that case, Odessa’s motivation to bake in her free time might remain high if, for example, customers regularly compliment her baking or cake decorating skills.

These apparent discrepancies in the researchers’ findings may be understood by considering several factors. For one, physical reinforcement (such as money) and verbal reinforcement (such as praise) may affect an individual in very different ways. In fact, tangible rewards (i.e., money) tend to have more negative effects on intrinsic motivation than do intangible rewards (i.e., praise). Furthermore, the expectation of the extrinsic motivator by an individual is crucial: If the person expects to receive an extrinsic reward, then intrinsic motivation for the task tends to be reduced. If, however, there is no such expectation, and the extrinsic motivation is presented as a surprise, then intrinsic motivation for the task tends to persist (Deci et al., 1999).

Culture and Motivation

In addition, culture may influence motivation. For example, in collectivistic cultures, it is common to do things for your family members because the emphasis is on the group and what is best for the entire group, rather than what is best for any one individual (Nisbett, Peng, Choi, & Norenzayan, 2001). This focus on others provides a broader perspective that takes into account both situational and cultural influences on behavior; thus, a more nuanced explanation of the causes of others’ behavior becomes more likely. (You will learn more about collectivistic and individualistic cultures when you learn about social psychology.)

Another example of this is classroom culture. Students are more motivated to learn when they feel a sense of belonging and respect in the classroom, and when they have some control over the learning environment. Providing challenging yet achievable tasks with a clear rationale for learning can also enhance intrinsic motivation to do these tasks (Niemiec & Ryan, 2009). For instance, a student is likely to be less motivated in a class where the teacher intimidates students with tough questions and where grades are based solely on quizzes and exams. In contrast, the student is likely to be more motivated in a class that values inclusive collaboration and respectful debates in small groups and allows students to design their own research projects.