Theories of Motivation: Learn It 3—Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

The theories covered so far often focus on specific sources of motivation—biological drives, optimal arousal, or beliefs about abilities. In contrast, Abraham Maslow (1943) proposed a broader framework integrating biological, safety, social, and personal-growth motives into one model: the hierarchy of needs.

A triangle is divided vertically into five sections with corresponding labels inside and outside of the triangle for each section. From top to bottom, the triangle's sections are labeled: “self-actualization” corresponds to “Inner fulfillment” “esteem” corresponds to “Self-worth, accomplishment, confidence”; “social” corresponds to “Family, friendship, intimacy, belonging”’ “security” corresponds to “Safety, employment, assets”; ““physiological” corresponds to “Food, water, shelter, warmth.”
Figure 1.Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is often shown as a pyramid, though Maslow himself never used this image. Some researchers argue the pyramid format oversimplifies his ideas by suggesting rigid stages rather than overlapping, dynamic needs.

Maslow suggested that people are motivated by multiple kinds of needs, ranging from survival to meaning:

  1. Physiological needs (food, water, sleep)
  2. Safety needs (security, stability, protection)
  3. Love and belonging (friendship, intimacy, community)
  4. Esteem (competence, respect, confidence)
  5. Self-actualization (developing your potential, growth, purpose). Self-actualization is the ongoing process of developing your abilities and pursuing meaningful goals—becoming “more fully yourself” over time.

Maslow argued that people tend to focus most on unmet lower-level needs. For example, if someone is dealing with housing insecurity or not getting enough food, those needs are likely to take priority over esteem or long-term personal growth (Maslow, 1943).

A Contemporary Reframing

Psychologist Scott Barry Kaufman (2020) has proposed reimagining Maslow’s model using a sailboat metaphor: security needs (safety, connection, self-esteem) form the boat’s hull, keeping you stable, while growth needs (exploration, love, purpose) act as the sail, propelling you forward. This framing emphasizes that growth and security needs work together dynamically rather than in a fixed sequence.

Critiques and Updates

Maslow’s model is influential, but research suggests real life is messier than a step-by-step pyramid.

  • Needs don’t always unfold in a fixed order. People often pursue multiple needs at once, and some needs (like belonging and esteem) can strongly relate to well-being even when other needs aren’t fully met.

    Research by Tay and Diener (2011), analyzing data from over 120 countries, found that while fulfillment of various needs did predict well-being, the needs did not operate in a strict hierarchy. Notably, social needs (belonging, respect) predicted well-being even when basic needs were not fully met. Additionally, the relative importance of different needs varied across cultures—collectivist societies often prioritized belonging and social harmony differently than individualist societies.

  • Cultural context matters. Evidence from cross-national and cross-cultural research suggests the “same pyramid for everyone” idea is too simple; what people prioritize and how needs are expressed can vary across settings.

Later interpretations of Maslow’s work argue that he eventually emphasized a level beyond self-actualization: self-transcendence—pursuing meaning and purpose beyond the self (for example, service, faith, justice, or sacrifice for a cause) (Koltko-Rivera, 2006). This helps explain why some people will endure hardship to support values, communities, or movements they see as larger than themselves.

Other Theories of Motivation

Self-Determination Theory

Maslow’s emphasis on psychological needs has influenced contemporary theories with stronger research support. Self-Determination Theory (Deci & Ryan, 2000) identifies three core psychological needs:

  • Autonomy — feeling in control of your choices
  • Competence — feeling capable and effective
  • Relatedness — feeling connected to others

Research consistently shows that environments supporting these needs promote intrinsic motivation and well-being across cultures. A 2020 review by Ryan and Deci found that both intrinsic motivation and well-internalized forms of extrinsic motivation predict positive outcomes across varied educational levels and cultural contexts, and are enhanced when students’ basic psychological needs are supported.

SDT also describes a continuum of motivation from amotivation (lacking any intention to act) through various forms of extrinsic motivation to intrinsic motivation. Importantly, extrinsic motivation isn’t inherently inferior—when people identify with and internalize the value of an activity, extrinsic motivation can become highly autonomous and effective.

ERG Theory

Clayton Alderfer (1972) condensed Maslow’s five levels into three categories:

  • Existence needs — food, shelter, safety
  • Relatedness needs — social connection and relationships
  • Growth needs — personal development and self-actualization

Unlike Maslow’s model, ERG theory allows for frustration-regression: when growth needs are continuously blocked, people may refocus energy on relatedness or existence needs rather than remaining stuck. This acknowledges that motivation can move in multiple directions depending on circumstances.

Need Theory

David McClelland (1961) proposed that three learned needs shape much of human motivation:

  • Need for Achievement — the drive to succeed and master challenges
  • Need for Affiliation — the desire for social acceptance and belonging
  • Need for Power — the drive to influence others and control outcomes

McClelland’s research suggested that individuals differ in which need dominates their motivation, with implications for career fit, leadership styles, and workplace behavior.

16 Basic Desires Theory

While other theories group motives into a few broad categories, Steven Reiss (2000) argued that human motivation is better understood through a larger set of distinct desires. Based on studies involving more than 6,000 people, Reiss proposed that 16 basic desires guide nearly all human behavior:

    • Acceptance, the need for approval
    • Curiosity, the need to learn
    • Eating, the need for food
    • Family, the need to raise children
    • Honor, the need to be loyal to the traditional values of one’s clan/ethnic group
    • Idealism, the need for social justice
    • Independence, the need for individuality
    • Order, the need for organized, stable, predictable environments
    • Physical activity, the need for exercise
    • Power, the need for influence of will
    • Romance, the need for sex and for beauty
    • Saving, the need to collect
    • Social contact, the need for friends (peer relationships)
    • Social status, the need for social standing/importance
    • Tranquility, the need to be safe
    • Vengeance, the need to strike back and to compete

This model suggests that motivation is highly individualized—people vary in the strength of each desire, creating unique motivational profiles.

Which of these theories makes the most sense to you personally? As an example, think about your ideal career goal. What is it that motivates you to strive towards that goal?