Memory Strategies: Learn It 2—Studying Effectively

How to Study Effectively

Based on the information presented in this module, here are some strategies and suggestions to help you improve your study techniques.

  1. Use elaborative rehearsal: In a famous article, Fergus Craik and Robert Lockhart (1972) discussed their belief that information we process more deeply goes into long-term memory. Their theory is called levels of processing. If we want to remember a piece of information, we should think about it more deeply and link it to other information and memories to make it more meaningful. For example, if we are trying to remember that the hippocampus is involved with memory processing, we might envision a hippopotamus with excellent memory and then we could better remember the hippocampus.
  2. Apply the self-reference effect: As you go through the process of elaborative rehearsal, it would be even more beneficial to make the material you are trying to memorize personally meaningful to you. In other words, make use of the self-reference effect. Write notes in your own words. Write definitions from the text, and then rewrite them in your own words. Relate the material to something you have already learned for another class, or think how you can apply the concepts to your own life. When you do this, you are building a web of retrieval cues that will help you access the material when you want to remember it.
  3. Use distributed, or spaced, practice: Study across time in short durations rather than trying to cram it all in at once. Memory consolidation takes time, and studying across time allows time for memories to consolidate. In addition, cramming can cause the links between concepts to become so active that you get stuck in a link, and it prevents you from accessing the rest of the information that you learned.
  4. Rehearse, rehearse, rehearse: Review the material over time, in spaced and organized study sessions. Organize and study your notes, and take practice quizzes/exams. Link the new information to other information you already know well.
    • This idea of practicing to learn is called retrieval practice—the more you retrieve the information the stronger memory traces become, which makes it easier to retrieve that information in the future. Retrieval practice can take many forms, such as self-quizzing, flashcards, or summarizing information from memory. Retrieval practice is an effective way to improve long-term memory retention and learning, particularly when compared to passive review. By actively engaging with information, learners can better identify gaps in their knowledge and focus their studying efforts on areas where they need more practice.
    • When researchers compared retrieval practice with other study techniques like rereading and highlighting, here’s what they found[1][2]:
      Study Technique Usefulness
      Doing practice questions (retrieval practice) High
      Spacing out your practice over time (spaced practice) High
      Rereading Low
      Highlighting Low
      Summarization Low

      So what does this mean for you? Take advantage of practice opportunities. Practice can take many forms. For example, answer the Try It and Self Check questions in this course, complete homework questions, or two of the problems at the end of a chapter in your textbook. Even making up practice questions for yourself or others after you read a page of content is effective practice!

  5. Make use of mnemonic devices: As you learned earlier in this chapter, mnemonic devices often help us to remember and recall information. There are different types of mnemonic devices, such as the acronym. An acronym is a word formed by the first letter of each of the words you want to remember. For example, even if you live near one, you might have difficulty recalling the names of all five Great Lakes. What if I told you to think of the word Homes? HOMES is an acronym that represents Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, and Superior: the five Great Lakes. Another type of mnemonic device is an acrostic: you make a phrase of all the first letters of the words. For example, if you are taking a math test and you are having difficulty remembering the order of operations, recalling the following sentence will help you: “Please Excuse My Dear Aunt Sally,” because the order of mathematical operations is Parentheses, Exponents, Multiplication, Division, Addition, Subtraction. There also are jingles, which are rhyming tunes that contain keywords related to the concept, such as i before e, except after c.
  6. Switch up the things you study and interleave, or review what you learn in various intervals. Many students group their studying by topic within a course. This means that they will study Chapter 2 material first before they move on to study Chapter 3 material. Once they are finished with those, they finally move on to Chapter 4 material, and so on. This is called blocking, or taking all of the things you need to study and chopping it into blocks based on chapter or unit. It makes a lot of sense to study this way, but is it the most effective way to study? Spoiler alert, the answer is no! Interleaving is a more effective way to study. Interleaving is splitting your study topics into smaller chunks, and then moving frequently between study topics rather than studying the same material for hours at a time.Let’s say you have three study topics: A, B, and C. Here’s how each of these techniques would look:
    1. Blocking Practice (not as good): AAABBBCCC
    2. Interleaved Practice (much better): ABCABCABC

Research by Rohrer et al. and Taylor found that interleaving was a significantly more effective learning strategy than blocked practice and helped students learn more in the same amount of time. Interestingly, students who implemented interleaving practice felt like they were learning less, but ended up doing much better than students who felt like they were learning more with blocking practice.[3]

In addition to doing the things above to help you learn and retain information, you should also consider these other tips that help with memory:

  1. Be aware of distractions: To reduce the likelihood of things disrupting your encoding of memories, study during a quiet time without interruptions or distractions (like television or music).
  2. Keep moving: Of course you already know that exercise is good for your body, but did you also know it’s also good for your mind? Research suggests that regular aerobic exercise (anything that gets your heart rate elevated) is beneficial for memory (van Praag, 2008). Aerobic exercise promotes neurogenesis: the growth of new brain cells in the hippocampus, an area of the brain known to play a role in memory and learning.
  3. Get enough sleep: While you are sleeping, your brain is still at work. During sleep the brain organizes and consolidates information to be stored in long-term memory (Abel & Bäuml, 2013).
The Pen versus the keyboard

A study conducted by Mueller and Oppenheimer in 2014 explored the effects of using laptops for taking notes compared to traditional pen and paper. They aimed to determine whether the medium used for note-taking influenced learning and retention of information.

In the study, participants attended a lecture and were randomly assigned to either take notes on a laptop or with pen and paper. The researchers found that students who used laptops tended to take more notes overall, as typing allowed for faster transcription of the lecture content. However, they also observed that these participants engaged in verbatim transcription, essentially typing what they heard word-for-word, without much processing or summarization.[4]

On the other hand, participants who took notes by hand had to actively listen, process the information, and selectively write down key points due to the slower writing speed. This process of summarizing and rephrasing the information in their own words appeared to enhance their understanding and retention of the material.

In subsequent memory tests, it was found that participants who took notes by hand performed better in conceptual understanding and long-term retention compared to those who used laptops. The act of handwriting seemed to promote deeper processing and encoding of the information, leading to improved learning outcomes.

These findings suggest that although laptops allow for greater note-taking efficiency, the cognitive processes associated with pen and paper, such as summarizing and rephrasing, contribute to better learning and retention. Though our society continues to move away from taking notes by hand, the study highlights the importance of adopting note-taking strategies that promote active engagement and processing of information for optimal learning.

This research tells us that learning involves more than studying. There is an opportune moment when we first encounter the material. Attend class, pay attention to the instructor’s lecture and actively engage with the course material. This is vital to creating long-lasting memories.APA Theme B: Psychology explains general principles that govern behavior by recognizing individual differences.

1.    How might the findings of the study conducted by Mueller and Oppenheimer in 2014 be influenced by individual differences in learning? Consider that different individuals may have varying levels of comfort and proficiency with technology, as well as different preferences for note-taking methods. How might these factors interact with the results of the study and potentially influence the relationship between note-taking medium and learning outcomes?

2.    While the study suggests that handwriting notes promote better learning and retention, are there any potential limitations or confounding factors that need to be considered? For instance, could the findings be influenced by factors such as the duration of the study session, the complexity of the lecture content, or the individual’s prior knowledge on the subject matter? How might these variables affect the generalizability and applicability of the findings to different educational contexts or disciplines?

This SciShow Psych video demonstrates some of the research on best note-taking strategies and highlights some of the situational differences that might impact your performance on a later exam.

  1. Ambrose, S. A., Bridges, M. W., DiPietro, M., Lovett, M. C., & Norman, M. K. (2010). How learning works: Seven research-based principles for smart teaching. John Wiley & Sons. ↵
  2. Dunlosky, J., Rawson, K. A., Marsh, E. J., Nathan, M. J., & Willingham, D. T. (2013). Improving students’ learning with effective learning techniques: Promising directions from cognitive and educational psychology. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 14(1), 4–58. https://doi.org/10.1177/1529100612453266 ↵
  3. Rohrer, D., Dedrick, R. F., & Stershic, S. (2015). Interleaved practice improves mathematics learning. Journal of Educational Psychology, 107(3), 900. ↵
  4. Mueller, P. A., & Oppenheimer, D. M. (2014). The Pen Is Mightier Than the Keyboard. Psychological Science. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797614524581 ↵