Ageism

People often form judgments and expectations about others based on age. These judgments can lead to ageism, which refers to prejudice and discrimination toward individuals based solely on their age.

Ageism is widespread in U.S. culture (Nosek, 2005). Common ageist stereotypes about older adults portray them as incompetent, physically weak, or slow (Greenberg et al., 2002). These stereotypes can shape how people feel about older adults and how they treat them—often in limiting or dismissive ways.

Consider the expectations you hold about older adults. How might these expectations influence your interactions with them or decisions about their abilities?

Consequences of Ageism

Ageism has real and measurable consequences. In a large, cross-national review spanning more than 40 years, Chang et al. (2020) found that adults over age 50 frequently experienced ageism in key life domains, particularly in:

• access to healthcare, and
• employment opportunities.

Importantly, ageism was associated with worse physical and mental health outcomes across multiple domains.

Cultural context matters. Some cultures—including many Asian, Latino, and African American communities, both within and outside the United States—place greater emphasis on respecting and honoring older adults. These cultural values can reduce ageist attitudes and buffer against some negative effects.

Ageism Toward Younger Adults

Although ageism most often targets older adults, younger adults can also experience age-based prejudice. Society may stereotype younger people as irresponsible, immature, or unreliable.

Research by Raymer et al. (2017) found that older workers often endorsed negative stereotypes about younger workers, perceiving them as less competent or less committed. These biases can influence hiring, promotion, and workplace relationships.

For example, imagine a younger and an older adult applying for the same retail job. How might age-based expectations shape how each candidate is evaluated—even if their qualifications are similar?

Homophobia

Another form of prejudice is homophobia.

homophobia

Homophobia refers to prejudice and discrimination toward individuals based on their sexual orientation.

Homophobia has been widespread historically in the United States and around the world (Herek & McLemore, 2013; Nosek, 2005). In many countries, attitudes toward sexual diversity have become more accepting over time. For example, in the United States, approximately 72% of adults now report that homosexuality should be accepted by society (Poushter & Kent, 2020). Acceptance has also increased in countries such as India, where public support has more than doubled over the past decade.

Despite these positive trends, acceptance varies greatly by country, region, and community. Many areas remain hostile or unsafe for members of the LGBTQ+ community (lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer, and other diverse sexual and gender identities).

Homophobia can take many forms, including social exclusion or avoidance, harassment or verbal abuse, discrimination in employment or housing, and denial of healthcare or legal protections.

At an institutional level, discrimination may be embedded in laws or policies that restrict LGBTQ+ individuals’ rights related to healthcare, family formation, or personal expression. Although federal legislation such as the Matthew Shepard and James Byrd, Jr. Hate Crimes Prevention Act criminalizes hate crimes based on sexual orientation or gender identity, protections related to housing, employment, education, and family law vary by state (Human Rights Campaign, 2022).

Research consistently shows that exposure to homophobia—whether interpersonal or institutional—is associated with higher rates of anxiety, depression, and suicide, particularly among LGBTQ+ youth.

Visit these websites to learn more about some of these issues and resources designed to challenge discrimination against the LBGTQ+ community. 

• ACLU is an organization that advocates for the rights of LGBTQ+ people to live with autonomy and without discrimination and challenging discriminatory laws.
• The Human Rights Campaign advocates for equality under law and empowerment of the LGTBQ+ community. 
• The Trevor Project seeks to provide resources, support, and advocacy for the LGTBQ+ community as they cope with stigma, discrimination, and violence in their communities and society at large.