• Describe humanistic therapy
• Describe mindfulness, addiction treatments, and other emerging psychological treatments
• Compare different biomedical therapies

Psychotherapy: Humanistic Therapy

Humanistic psychology focuses on helping people achieve their potential, so it makes sense that the goal of humanistic therapy is to help people become more self-aware and accepting of themselves. In contrast to psychoanalysis, humanistic therapists focus on conscious rather than unconscious thoughts and emphasize the client’s present and future rather than exploring their past.

humanistic therapy

Humanistic psychology is a psychological perspective that emphasizes individuals’ inherent capacity for growth, self-understanding, and personal meaning. Rather than focusing on pathology, unconscious conflict, or behavior control, humanistic psychology centers on the whole person and their subjective experience of the world.

Person-Centered Therapy

Psychologist Carl Rogers developed client-centered therapy (also called person-centered therapy or PCT). Rogers (1951) preferred the term “client” over “patient” because “patient” suggested the person was sick and looking for a cure. As a form of nondirective therapy—an approach in which the therapist does not give advice or provide interpretations but helps the person identify conflicts and understand feelings—Rogers emphasized the importance of the individual taking control of their own life to overcome challenges.

Core Techniques

In client-centered therapy, the therapist uses active listening—acknowledging, restating, and clarifying what the client expresses. Therapists also practice unconditional positive regard, which involves not judging clients and simply accepting them for who they are. Rogers believed therapists should demonstrate genuineness and empathy because this helps people become more accepting of themselves, which results in personal growth.

Research Support

A 2023 meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials found that humanistic-experiential therapies (HEPs) show significant benefits over usual care for treating depression and are comparable to other active treatments at post-treatment (Duffy et al., 2023). Research also demonstrates that clients in HEPs show large gains relative to those receiving no therapy, with effect sizes comparable to cognitive-behavioral therapy and psychodynamic approaches. Recent qualitative research with young people (ages 13-16) found that common change processes in humanistic therapy include experiencing relief, gaining insight into behavior, and developing self-worth (Journal of Child and Family Studies, 2025).

In this short video, Carl Rogers talks about his experiences using client, or person-centered therapy.

Psychotherapy: Mindfulness

One age-old practice that has seen a resurgence in popularity in recent years is mindfulness.

mindfulness

Mindfulness is a process that tries to cultivate a nonjudgmental, yet attentive, mental state. It is a therapy that focuses on one’s awareness of bodily sensations, thoughts, and the outside environment. Whereas other therapies work to modify or eliminate these sensations and thoughts, mindfulness focuses on non-judgmentally accepting them (Kabat-Zinn, 2003; Baer, 2003).

For example, whereas CBT may actively confront and work to change a maladaptive thought, mindfulness therapy works to acknowledge and accept the thought, understanding that the thought is spontaneous and not what the person truly believes.

Mindfulness has two important components: (1) self-regulation of attention, and (2) orientation toward the present moment (Bishop et al., 2004). It is thought to improve mental health by drawing attention away from past and future stressors, encouraging acceptance of troubling thoughts and feelings, and promoting physical relaxation.

Psychologists have adapted mindfulness practices into several therapeutic approaches:

• Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR) uses meditation, yoga, and attention to physical experiences to reduce stress. By reducing overall stress, individuals can more objectively evaluate their thoughts and reactions.
• Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy (MBCT) focuses attention on thoughts and their associated emotions. MBCT helps prevent depression relapses by teaching patients to evaluate their thoughts objectively and without value judgment. While CBT focuses on “pushing out” maladaptive thoughts, MBCT focuses on “not getting caught up” in them.

A 2024 meta-analysis of 29 randomized controlled trials found that MBSR significantly reduced anxiety, depression, and perceived stress in university students while improving mindfulness and self-kindness (Pan et al., 2024). A comprehensive systematic review of 87 peer-reviewed studies (2013-2024) found MBCT effective in reducing symptoms of depression, anxiety, and stress while enhancing cognitive functions and emotional regulation across diverse populations (Journal of Clinical Medicine, 2025). Recent research also suggests that mindfulness practice may induce neuroplastic changes in the brain, including increased cortical thickness and improved functioning in brain areas related to attention and self-regulation (Siew & Yu, 2023).

Importantly, a 2024 qualitative study found that MBSR participants reported sustained benefits at 1-year and 3-year follow-ups, including continued use of coping mechanisms in daily life, reduced anxiety and depression symptoms, improved emotional regulation, and increased resilience (Frontiers in Psychology, 2024).

Treatment for Addiction

Addiction and substance use disorders are difficult to treat because chronic substance use can permanently alter the neural structure in the prefrontal cortex—the brain area associated with decision-making and judgment—driving a person to continue using drugs and/or alcohol (Muñoz-Cuevas et al., 2013). This helps explain why relapse rates tend to be high: about 40-60% of individuals relapse, meaning they return to substance use after a period of improvement (National Institute on Drug Abuse, 2020).

Treatment Goals and Approaches

The goal of substance-related treatment is to help a person stop compulsive drug-seeking behaviors (NIDA, 2020). This means treatment usually needs to be long-term, similar to treatment for chronic physical diseases such as hypertension or diabetes. Treatment typically includes behavioral therapy and/or medication, depending on the individual. It is worth noting that relapse does not mean failure—even after relapse, recovery from addiction is possible.

Generally, the person needs to be in treatment for at least three months to achieve a positive outcome (NIDA, 2020). However, optimal duration varies by individual, history of drug use, and other factors—longer treatment times are generally associated with better outcomes. While individual therapy is used, group therapy is the most widespread treatment format. Research suggests people are more likely to maintain sobriety in a group format due to the rewarding and therapeutic benefits of support, affiliation, and identification with others in recovery.

Medications for Opioid Use Disorder

Treatment often involves medications to: safely detox after an overdose, prevent seizures and agitation during detox, prevent reuse of the drug, and manage withdrawal symptoms. For opioid use disorder (OUD), three FDA-approved medications—methadone, buprenorphine, and naltrexone—have been demonstrated to be safe and effective. These medications reduce opioid cravings and help sever the ties between opioid use and established triggers (National Academies of Sciences, 2019). Research shows that medication-assisted treatment (MAT) significantly reduces substance use and improves both physical and mental health outcomes.

Frequently, a person with addiction has comorbid disorders—additional diagnoses of other psychological disorders. In cases of comorbidity, the best treatment addresses multiple disorders simultaneously (NIDA, 2020). A 2020 systematic review and meta-analysis found that combining pharmacotherapy with cognitive behavioral therapy produces better outcomes for adults with alcohol or substance use disorders than either treatment alone (Ray et al., 2020).

Recent research is shifting how clinicians view treatment success. A 2024 analysis found that reduced substance use—even short of complete abstinence—was associated with meaningful improvements in depression, craving, and psychosocial functioning across multiple clinical trials (NIDA, 2024). This suggests that setting abstinence as the only goal may create barriers to treatment engagement for those unready to make that commitment, and that reduction in use can be a valid intermediate outcome.

Evaluating Various Forms of Psychotherapy

How can we assess the effectiveness of psychotherapy? Is one technique more effective than another? For anyone considering therapy, these are important questions. According to the American Psychological Association, three factors work together to produce successful treatment:

1. The first is the use of evidence-based treatment that is deemed appropriate for your particular issue.
2. The second important factor is the clinical expertise of the psychologist or therapist.
3. The third factor is your own characteristics, values, preferences, and culture.

Many people begin psychotherapy feeling like their problem will never be resolved; however, psychotherapy helps people see that they can do things to make their situation better. Psychotherapy can help reduce a person’s anxiety, depression, and maladaptive behaviors. Through psychotherapy, individuals can learn to engage in healthy behaviors designed to help them better express emotions, improve relationships, think more positively, and perform more effectively at work or school. In discussing therapeutic orientations, it is important to note that many clinicians incorporate techniques from multiple approaches, a practice known as integrative or eclectic psychotherapy. For example, thought they are distinct methods, some techniques from client-centered therapy may also be utilized by a therapist during cognitive-behavioral therapy.

Many studies have explored the effectiveness of psychotherapy. For example, one large-scale study that examined 16 meta-analyses of CBT reported that it was equally effective or more effective than other therapies in treating PTSD, generalized anxiety disorder, depression, and social anxiety disorder (Butlera, Chapmanb, Formanc, & Becka, 2006). Another study found that CBT was as effective at treating depression (43% success rate) as prescription medication (50% success rate) compared to the placebo rate of 25% (DeRubeis et al., 2005). Another meta-analysis found that psychodynamic therapy was also as effective at treating these types of psychological issues as CBT (Shedler, 2010).

However, no studies have found one psychotherapeutic approach more effective than another (Abbass, Kisely, & Kroenke, 2006; Chorpita et al., 2011), nor have they shown any relationship between a client’s treatment outcome and the level of the clinician’s training or experience (Wampold, 2007). Regardless of which type of psychotherapy an individual chooses, one critical factor that determines the success of treatment is the person’s relationship with the psychologist or therapist.

Emerging Treatments

With the growth in research and technology, psychologists have been able to develop new treatment strategies in recent years. Often, these approaches focus on enhancing existing treatments, such as cognitive-behavioral therapies, through the use of technological advances. For example, internet- and mobile-delivered therapies make psychological treatments more available, through smartphones and online access. Clinician-supervised online CBT modules allow patients to access treatment from home on their own schedule—an opportunity particularly important for patients with less geographic or socioeconomic access to traditional treatments. Furthermore, smartphones help extend therapy to patients’ daily lives, allowing for symptom tracking, homework reminders, and more frequent therapist contact.

Another benefit of technology is cognitive bias modification. Here, patients are given exercises, often through the use of video games, aimed at changing their problematic thought processes. For example, researchers might use a mobile app to train alcohol abusers to avoid stimuli related to alcohol. One version of this game flashes four pictures on the screen—three alcohol cues (e.g., a can of beer, the front of a bar) and one health-related image (e.g., someone drinking water). The goal is for the patient to tap the healthy picture as fast as they can. Games like these aim to target patients’ automatic, subconscious thoughts that may be difficult to direct through conscious effort. That is, by repeatedly tapping the healthy image, the patient learns to “ignore” the alcohol cues, so when those cues are encountered in the environment, they will be less likely to trigger the urge to drink. Approaches like these are promising because of their accessibility, however, they require further research to establish their effectiveness.

Yet another emerging treatment employs CBT-enhancing pharmaceutical agents. These are drugs used to improve the effects of therapeutic interventions. Based on research from animal experiments, researchers have found that certain drugs influence the biological processes known to be involved in learning. Thus, if people take these drugs while going through psychotherapy, they are better able to “learn” the techniques for improvement. For example, the antibiotic d-cycloserine improves treatment for anxiety disorders by facilitating the learning processes that occur during exposure therapy. Ongoing research in this exciting area may prove to be quite fruitful.