Psychodynamic Approaches to Personality: Learn It 2—Freud and the Psychodynamic Perspective

Sigmund Freud and the Unconscious

Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) is one of the most famous—and most debated—figures in psychology. One helpful context: Freud trained as a physician and neurologist at a time when “psychology” was not yet a modern academic profession. Even though many of his specific explanations are criticized today, Freud’s lasting influence is that he pushed scientists and clinicians to take unconscious mental processes seriously.

A Case That Shaped “Talk Therapy”

Early in his career, Freud worked with Josef Breuer, a Viennese physician. Breuer treated Bertha Pappenheim (referred to in published writing by the pseudonym Anna O.) for distressing symptoms that included paralysis-like episodes, headaches, vision changes, memory problems, and hallucinations (Launer, 2005). Breuer reported that when she was able to describe upsetting experiences and emotions out loud, her symptoms sometimes improved. Pappenheim reportedly called this the “talking cure” (Launer, 2005).

Freud never met Pappenheim, but her case strongly influenced his thinking and contributed to Studies on Hysteria (1895), which he co-authored with Breuer. Based on Breuer’s description of Anna O.’s treatment, Freud concluded that hysteria was the result of sexual abuse in childhood and that these traumatic experiences had been hidden from consciousness. Breuer disagreed with Freud, which soon ended their work together. However, Freud continued to work to refine talk therapy and build his theory on personality. Notably, after her illness, Bertha Pappenheim became an influential social worker and advocate, particularly in her work supporting women and children.

In Freud’s era, many unexplained psychological symptoms were labeled hysteria—a term now widely recognized as shaped by sexist assumptions about women’s bodies and emotions (Illis, 2002). Today, modern diagnostic language has shifted. For example, the current DSM-5-TR description of what might be called “hysteria” is Functional Neurological Symptom Disorder (with “conversion disorder” in parentheses).

Levels of Consciousness

Freud used an iceberg metaphor to explain mental life: a small portion is conscious (what you are aware of right now), while a much larger portion is outside awareness. Freud called this larger portion the unconscious (Freud, 1923).

Modern psychology still supports the basic idea that mental processes can shape behavior without conscious awareness—though researchers explain this using cognitive and neuroscience frameworks (for example, automatic attention, memory, and emotion processes).

Freud argued that some thoughts, urges, or memories are kept out of awareness through repression. In his view, repression protects the person from distress in the short term, but it can also create psychological tension that shows up in symptoms.

“Freudian Slips”

Freud suggested that slips of the tongue (sometimes called “Freudian slips”) reveal hidden, often sexual or aggressive, unconscious urges. Today, most psychologists are more cautious: speech errors are common and often increase when people are tired, stressed, distracted, or juggling a lot mentally—conditions that make language production more error-prone (Motley, 2002). In other words, a slip might be meaningful, but it does not automatically prove a repressed desire.

The mind’s conscious and unconscious states are illustrated as an iceberg floating in water. Beneath the water’s surface in the “unconscious” area are the id, ego, and superego. The area above the water’s surface is labeled “conscious.” Most of the iceberg’s mass is contained underwater.
Figure 1. Freud believed that we are only aware of a small amount of our mind’s activities and that most of it remains hidden from us in our unconscious. The information in our unconscious affects our behavior, although we are unaware of it.

id, ego, and superego

Freud proposed that personality reflects an ongoing conflict between basic drives and internalized social rules. To explain that conflict, he described three interacting systems:

  • id: the most primitive part of personality, present from birth. It contains basic drives (such as hunger, thirst, and sex) and follows the pleasure principle, pushing for immediate gratification.

  • superego: develops through socialization. It represents internalized rules about right and wrong—like a conscience. It aims for perfection and can create pride or guilt.

  • ego: the rational, reality-oriented system that tries to balance the id and superego. The ego follows the reality principle, helping a person meet needs in realistic, socially acceptable ways.

A chart illustrates an exchange of the Id, Superego, and Ego. Each has its own caption. The Id reads “I want to do that now,” and the Superego reads “It’s not right to do that.” These two captions each have an arrow pointing to the Ego’s caption which reads “Maybe we can compromise.”
Figure 2. The job of the ego, or self, is to balance the aggressive/pleasure-seeking drives of the id with the moral control of the superego.

Balancing the system

Freud argued that psychological health depends on a strong ego that can balance competing demands:

  • If the id dominates, a person may act impulsively and ignore consequences.
  • If the superego dominates, a person may become overly guilt-driven or rigid.
  • If the ego becomes overly defensive or overcontrolled, a person may rely heavily on psychological “workarounds” (defense mechanisms) instead of addressing emotional needs directly.

Freud used the term neurosis to describe patterns of distress and anxiety that can emerge when this system is out of balance.