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Essential Concepts
Early Psychology
- Psychology is the scientific study of mind and behavior. Students of psychology develop critical thinking skills, learn about the scientific method, and understand the complexity of behavior.
- Wilhelm Wundt and William James played pivotal roles in establishing psychology as a scientific discipline.
- Wundt (Structuralism) – Broke cognitive experiences into basic elements using introspection.
- James (Functionalism) – Focused on how mental activities aid adaptation.
- Sigmund Freud (Psychoanalytic Theory) – Emphasized the unconscious mind, dream analysis, and childhood experiences.
- Gestalt psychology, popular in Europe, adopted a holistic view of individuals and their experiences. Some principles from Gestalt psychology still influence the study of sensation and perception.
The History of Psychology
| School of Psychology | Description | Earliest Period | Historically Important People |
|---|---|---|---|
| Psychodynamic perspective | Unconscious motivations and childhood experiences shape behavior | Very late 19th to Early 20th Century | Sigmund Freud, Erik Erikson |
| Behavioral perspective | Focuses on observing and controlling behavior through what is observable. Puts an emphasis on learning and conditioning. | Early 20th Century | Ivan Pavlov, John B. Watson, B. F. Skinner |
| Humanistic perspective | Emphasizes the potential for good that is innate to all humans and rejects that psychology should focus on problems and disorders. Focuses on free will, personal growth, and self-actualization. | 1950s | Abraham Maslow, The Blackfoot Nation, Carl Rogers |
| Cognitive perspective | Focuses not just on behavior, but on mental processes and internal mental states. Emphasizes thinking, memory, perception, and problem-solving | 1960s | Ulric Neisser, Noam Chomsky, Jean Piaget, Lev Vygotsky |
In addition to these early perspectives, some other key perspectives that developed in the latter part of the 20th century include:
- the biological perspective, focusing on physiological causes for behavior. This examines how the brain, nervous system, and genetics shape behavior.
- The evolutionary perspective says that behaviors have an evolutionary cause (which grew from functionalist views). It explains behavior through adaptation and natural selection.
- The sociocultural perspective examines how the environment strongly influences thoughts and behaviors. It studies the impact of social and cultural influences.
The Psychological Domains
Psychology is a diverse discipline that is made up of several major subdivisions with unique perspectives. The five psychological domains, or pillars, divide the main areas of study within psychology into 5 categories:
- Domain 1: Biological psychology involves the study of the biological bases of behavior, which includes neuroscience, consciousness, and sensation. (Sensation and perception refer to the area of psychology that is focused on how information from our sensory modalities is received, and how this information is transformed into our perceptual experiences of the world around us.)
- Domain 2: Cognitive psychology is concerned with the relationship that exists between thought and behavior, and includes the study of perception, attention, memory, and intelligence.
- Domain 3: Developmental psychology is the study of physical and cognitive changes that occur throughout one’s lifespan. This includes the study of learning and conditioning, lifespan development, and language.
- Domain 4: Social and Personality psychology focuses on individuals’ unique patterns of behavior, thought, and emotion.
- Domain 5: Mental and Physical Health psychology is the study of abnormal psychology, with its focus on abnormal thoughts and behaviors, as well as counseling and treatment methods, and recommendations for coping with stress and living a healthy life.
Industrial and organizational psychology, health psychology, sport and exercise psychology, forensic psychology, and clinical psychology are all considered applied areas of psychology.
Careers in Psychology
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Doctoral-level psychologists work in academic, clinical, and research settings.
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Master’s-level psychologists may work in counseling, education, or social services.
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Bachelor’s-level graduates often pursue careers in human resources, business, and healthcare.
Glossary
American Psychological Association
professional organization representing psychologists in the United States
behaviorism
the psychological focus on observing and controlling behavior. Behaviorism as a theory holds that behaviors are learned or conditioned through environmental experiences.
biological perspective
a psychological approach that examines physiological causes for behavior
biopsychology
study of how biology influences behavior
biopsychosocial model
perspective that asserts that biology, psychology, and social factors interact to determine an individual’s health
clinical psychology
area of psychology that focuses on the diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders and other problematic patterns of behavior
cognitive psychology
area of psychology that focuses on studying thoughts and their relationship to our experiences and actions
cognitive revolution
a period of change in psychology during the 1950s and 1960s, characterized by a shift back to studying mental processes and the emergence of cognitive psychology as a prominent perspective
counseling psychology
discipline that focuses on emotional, social, vocational, and health-related outcomes in individuals who are considered psychologically healthy
cross-cultural psychologists
compare populations across countries
developmental psychology
the scientific study of development across a lifespan
dissertation
long research paper about research that was conducted as a part of the candidate’s doctoral training
eclectic approach
an approach in psychology where psychologists draw from multiple ideas and theories, integrating different perspectives to understand and study human behavior
empirical method
method for acquiring knowledge based on observation, including experimentation, rather than a method based only on forms of logical argument or previous authorities
evolutionary perspective
A psychological approach that posits behaviors have an evolutionary cause and grew from functionalist views
evolutionary psychology
seeks to understand human behavior as the result of psychological adaptation and natural selection
forensic psychology
area of psychology that applies the science and practice of psychology to issues within and related to the justice system
functionalism
early school of thought (William James) that studied how mental activities help adaptation. Focused on how mental activities help an organism adapt to its environment.
health psychology
the study of how psychological factors, including thoughts, emotions, behaviors, and social interactions, influence health and well-being
humanism
perspective within psychology that emphasizes the potential for good that is innate to all humans
humanistic perspective
a psychological approach that emphasizes the potential for good in all humans and rejects a focus on problems and disorders. It emerged in the 1950s, with influential figures such as Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers.
multicultural psychologists
develop theories and conduct research with diverse populations, typically within one country
natural selection
a process by which heritable traits conferring survival and reproductive advantage to individuals tend to be passed on to succeeding generations and become more frequent in a population
-ology
suffix that denotes “scientific study of”
personality psychology
study of patterns of thoughts and behaviors that make each individual unique
personality trait
a consistent pattern of thought and behavior
PhD (doctor of philosophy)
doctoral degree conferred in many disciplinary perspectives housed in a traditional college of liberal arts and sciences
postdoctoral training program
allows young scientists to further develop their research programs and broaden their research skills under the supervision of other professionals in the field
psyche
Greek word for soul
psychiatrist
a person with a medical degree who specializes in treating mental health issues and diagnosable disorders, they can prescribe medications
psychoanalysis
a type of talk therapy originally developed by Freud but still practiced today that focuses on the interaction between conscious and unconscious elements and involves a person talking about their past experiences to uncover and understand the reasons for behavior
psychoanalytic theory
focus on the role of the unconscious in affecting conscious behavior
psychodynamic perspective
a psychological approach that focuses on the role of the unconscious and childhood experiences in shaping conscious behavior. It originated in the late 19th to early 20th century, with notable figures like Sigmund Freud and Erik Erikson.
psychological domain
specific areas of study within the broader discipline of psychology. Each domain examines a different aspect of human experience and behavior.
psychological perspective
theoretical frameworks psychologists use to understand, describe, and explain human behavior and cognitive processes. Each perspective emphasizes different aspects of human behavior and uses different techniques and methods for treatment and study.
psychology
the scientific study of mental processes and behavior
PsyD (doctor of psychology)
doctoral degree that places less emphasis on research-oriented skills and focuses more on application of psychological principles in the clinical context
social psychology
the scientific study of how people’s thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by the actual, imagined, or implied presence of others
sociocultural perspective
a psychological approach that emphasizes the influence of the environment on thoughts and behaviors
sport and exercise psychology
area of psychology that focuses on the interactions between mental and emotional factors and physical performance in sports, exercise, and other activities
structuralism
an early school of psychology that aimed to identify the basic structures of consciousness. It sought to understand the conscious experience through introspection.