Aggression
People influence one another’s thoughts, feelings, and behaviors—sometimes in positive ways, and sometimes in harmful ones. Humans can work together to help others in emergencies, build strong communities, and promote well-being. At the same time, social influence can also contribute to harm, such as when people conform to immoral group norms or obey authority figures without questioning their actions.
In this section, we focus on one negative aspect of social behavior: aggression.
aggression
Aggression refers to behavior intended to cause harm or pain to another person. Psychologists distinguish between two main types of aggression based on motivation.
- Hostile aggression is driven by anger or emotional arousal, with the primary goal of causing pain or injury. Example: a physical fight that breaks out during a heated argument.
- Instrumental aggression is goal-oriented and not primarily motivated by anger. Harm is a means to an end (Berkowitz, 1993). Example: using threats or violence to gain money, power, or status.
Why Does Aggression Occur?
Psychologists have proposed several explanations for aggressive behavior.
Frustration–Aggression Theory
According to frustration–aggression theory, aggression is more likely when people are blocked from achieving an important goal (Dollard et al., 1939). For example, repeated obstacles, perceived unfairness, or chronic stress may increase aggressive responses—especially when people feel they have little control over the situation.
Evolutionary Perspectives
Some researchers argue that aggression has served evolutionary functions related to survival and reproduction (Buss, 2004). From this perspective, aggression—particularly among males—may have historically helped establish dominance, protect resources, or compete for mates (Wilson & Daly, 1985).
Research has found that:
- Men, on average, engage more frequently in physical aggression.
- Women are more likely to use indirect or relational aggression, such as harming someone’s social relationships or reputation (Dodge & Schwartz, 1997).
It is important to note that these patterns reflect statistical trends, not fixed traits. People of all genders can engage in many forms of aggression, and behavior is strongly shaped by social context, culture, and learning.
Bullying
Another important form of aggression—especially relevant to children and adolescents—is bullying.
bullying
Bullying is repeated negative treatment of another person over time (Olweus, 1993). A single conflict or fight does not qualify as bullying. Instead, bullying involves a pattern of behavior intended to harm, intimidate, or humiliate.
Bullying can take many forms:
- physical (hitting, pushing),
- verbal (name-calling, threats),
- social or psychological (exclusion, spreading rumors).
Bullying involves three roles: the bully, the victim, and often bystanders who witness the behavior. A key feature of bullying is an imbalance of power, where the bully holds greater physical, social, or emotional power. While bullies may experience short-term gains such as social status or a sense of control, bullying has serious negative consequences for victims and witnesses.
Victims of bullying are more likely to experience anxiety and depression, academic difficulties, and increased risk of suicidal thoughts and behaviors (APA, 2010; Bowen, 2011).
Research suggests that:
- Boys are more likely to engage in direct physical aggression.
- Girls are more likely to engage in indirect or relational aggression, such as exclusion or rumor-spreading (APA, 2010; Olweus, 1993).
There is no single personality type for bullies or victims, but certain factors increase vulnerability. Children who are emotionally reactive or perceived as “different” are at higher risk of being targeted. This may include children who are overweight, have disabilities, or belong to racial, ethnic, or cultural minority groups.
Lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer youth are at especially high risk for bullying and harassment.
Recent findings show that:
- Over half of LGBTQ+ middle and high school students report being bullied (The Trevor Project, 2021).
- LGBTQ+ youth are significantly more likely to experience verbal harassment and physical assault.
- Bullying is a major risk factor for suicide; LGBTQ+ youth are several times more likely to attempt suicide than their non-LGBTQ peers (Johns et al., 2019).
Importantly, affirming school environments—including inclusive policies, supportive educators, and LGBTQ-affirming clubs—serve as protective factors that reduce bullying and improve mental health outcomes (The Trevor Project, 2022).
Cyberbullying
cyberbullying
Cyberbullying, like bullying, is repeated behavior that is intended to cause psychological or emotional harm to another person. What is unique about cyberbullying is that it is typically covert, concealed, done in private, and the bully can remain anonymous. This anonymity gives the bully power, and the victim may feel helpless, unable to escape the harassment, and unable to retaliate (Spears, Slee, Owens, & Johnson, 2009).
Common Forms of Cyberbullying
Cyberbullying can take many forms, including:
- spreading rumors or false information online,
- posting or sharing humiliating images or videos (sometimes without consent),
- impersonation or account hacking,
- exclusion from group chats or online communities, and
- persistent harassment through comments, direct messages, or gaming platforms.
More recent research highlights that cyberbullying often occurs in peer group spaces, such as class group chats or shared social media feeds, where bystanders play a significant role in reinforcing—or interrupting—harmful behavior.
Studies continue to find gender differences in cyberbullying patterns. Girls are more likely to experience and engage in cyberbullying, in part because it relies on indirect or relational aggression rather than physical force (Hoff & Mitchell, 2009). However, recent research suggests these differences are narrowing as online interaction becomes more central for all genders.
More recent studies show that both victims and perpetrators of cyberbullying are at elevated risk for mental health challenges, including loneliness, substance use, and suicidal ideation (Kowalski et al., 2020; John et al., 2023). The constant connectivity of digital spaces can intensify stress and make recovery more difficult.
Protective factors—such as supportive peers, trusted adults, clear school policies, and digital literacy education—significantly reduce harm and improve outcomes for young people.