Carl Jung
Carl Jung was a Swiss psychiatrist and protégé of Freud, who later split off from Freud and developed his own theory, which he called analytical psychology. The focus of analytical psychology is on working to balance opposing forces of conscious and unconscious thought, and experience within one’s personality. According to Jung, this work is a continuous learning process—mainly occurring in the second half of life—of becoming aware of unconscious elements and integrating them into consciousness.
The Split from Freud
Jung’s break with Freud was based on two major disagreements. First, like Adler and Erikson, Jung did not accept that sexual drive was the primary motivator in mental life. Second, although Jung agreed with Freud’s concept of a personal unconscious, he thought it incomplete. Jung proposed that beyond our personal unconscious lies something deeper: the collective unconscious.
The Collective Unconscious and Archetypes
The collective unconscious is a universal version of the personal unconscious, holding mental patterns common to all humans (Jung, 1928). These ancestral patterns, which Jung called archetypes, are represented by universal themes across cultures, expressed through literature, art, and dreams.
archetypes
Archetypes are universal psychological patterns—common themes the mind uses to make sense of life experiences.
You can think of them as mental “templates” for big human challenges, such as:
- Caregiver/Mother: themes of nurturing, protection, and safety
- Hero: facing danger, proving yourself, and gaining independence
- Trickster: breaking rules, exposing hypocrisy, and disrupting routines
- Shadow: the parts of yourself you reject or try to hide
- Self: wholeness, integration, and finding meaning
Think of archetypes like this: no one teaches children to fear the dark or to see snakes as dangerous—these responses seem built in. Similarly, Jung believed that certain psychological patterns (like the journey of the hero or the nurturing mother figure) are “built in” to the human psyche.
In Jung’s view, personality development—especially in adulthood—involves becoming more aware of unconscious patterns (including archetypes) and integrating them in a healthier, more balanced way. For example, recognizing your shadow may help you better understand your intense reactions, defensiveness, or judgments of others.
- Think about a quality you strongly dislike in other people. According to Jung, this might be part of your Shadow—something you’ve repressed in yourself. Does this idea resonate with you? Can you think of an example where you criticized someone for something you might secretly struggle with yourself?
- Can you think of an epic story that is popular in contemporary society (such as Harry Potter or Star Wars) and explain it terms of Jung’s concept of archetypes?
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Introversion and Extroversion
Jung proposed two fundamental attitudes toward life: extroversion and introversion (Jung, 1923). These concepts are considered Jung’s most important contributions to personality psychology—almost all modern personality models include them.
| Introvert | Extrovert |
|---|---|
| Energized by being alone | Energized by being with others |
| Avoids attention | Seeks attention |
| Speaks slowly and softly | Speaks quickly and loudly |
| Thinks before speaking | Thinks out loud |
| Stays on one topic | Jumps from topic to topic |
| Prefers written communication | Prefers verbal communication |
| Pays attention easily | Distractible |
| Cautious | Acts first, thinks later |
Jung believed a balance between extroversion and introversion best served self-realization.
Personas
Another concept proposed by Jung was the persona, which he referred to as a mask that we adopt. According to Jung, we consciously create this persona; however, it is derived from both our conscious experiences and our collective unconscious. What is the purpose of the persona? Jung believed that it is a compromise between who we really are (our true self) and what society expects us to be. We hide those parts of ourselves that are not aligned with society’s expectations.
Example: The Persona and Authenticity
Scenario: Jasmine presents herself as confident and outgoing on social media and at parties. But alone, she feels insecure and exhausted from “performing.”
Jungian interpretation:
- Jasmine has developed a strong Persona (social mask) that differs significantly from her inner experience
- The Persona is necessary—we can’t share our raw, unfiltered selves in every situation
- But if Jasmine over-identifies with her Persona, she may lose touch with her authentic self
- She might feel like a “fraud” or experience anxiety about being “found out”
The personality implication: Healthy personality involves knowing the difference between the role you play and who you actually are—and not letting the mask become a prison.
Karen Horney
- Like Jung, Horney believed that each individual has the potential for self-realization and that the goal of psychoanalysis should be moving toward a healthy self rather than exploring early childhood patterns of dysfunction.
- Horney also disagreed with the Freudian idea that girls have penis envy and are jealous of male biological features.
- According to Horney, any jealousy is most likely culturally based, due to the greater privileges that males often have based on societal norms.
- She further suggested that men have womb envy, because they cannot give birth.
Horney’s theory focused on basic anxiety—a deep sense of insecurity that can develop when a child’s needs for safety, belonging, and consistent care are not met. When children feel lonely, rejected, or unsupported, they often learn coping strategies to manage that anxiety. Horney described three common coping styles:
- Moving toward people (compliance): seeking closeness, approval, and reassurance through dependence on others.
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Example: Devon grew up with an emotionally unpredictable mother—warm one day, cold the next. Devon learned that being extra helpful and agreeable was the best way to maintain connection. Now in college, Devon apologizes constantly, drops everything to help friends (even at the cost of schoolwork), and feels anxious when a text goes unanswered. Devon stays in relationships that aren’t working because being alone feels unbearable.
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- Moving against people (aggression): gaining security through control, dominance, or confrontation.
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Example: Aaliyah grew up in a household where her parents fought constantly and her siblings teased her mercilessly. She learned that showing vulnerability meant getting hurt, and that toughness was the only way to survive. As an adult, Aaliyah dominates conversations, views most situations as competitions, and responds to criticism with counterattacks. She struggles to maintain close friendships because others feel steamrolled—but privately, she fears that letting her guard down will lead to being taken advantage of.
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- Moving away from people (withdrawal): reducing anxiety by becoming self-sufficient and emotionally distant
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Example: Kenji’s parents were high-achieving professionals who were rarely home. When present, they focused on his grades rather than his feelings. Kenji learned that emotions were inconvenient and that he could only count on himself. Now he works in data analysis with minimal team interaction, has acquaintances but no close friends, and declines most social invitations. He prides himself on not “needing” anyone—but his independence also keeps him isolated.
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Healthy Flexibility vs. Neurotic Rigidity
Horney believed these three styles are normal ways people cope with everyday stress. In healthy individuals, the styles are flexible—you might seek support in one situation, assert yourself in another, and need solitude in a third.
The styles become neurotic only when used rigidly and compulsively, regardless of context. When someone must always please others, must always dominate, or must always withdraw, they become alienated from others and from their authentic self.
Which of Horney’s three coping styles do you tend to default to when stressed? Can you think of a time when that strategy helped you? A time when it backfired?