ageism

People often form judgments and hold expectations about people based on their age. These judgments and expectations can lead to ageism, or prejudice and discrimination toward individuals based solely on their age.

 Think of expectations you hold for older adults. How could someone’s expectations influence the feelings they hold toward individuals from older age groups? Ageism is widespread in U.S. culture (Nosek, 2005), and a common ageist attitude toward older adults is that they are incompetent, physically weak, and slow (Greenberg, Schimel, & Martens, 2002). Chang, Kannoth, Levy, Wang, Lee, and Levy (2020) reported on relationships between ageism and health outcomes over a 40-year-plus period from countries around the world. Across 11 health domains, people over 50 were likely to experience ageism most often in the form of being denied access to health services and work opportunities. Some cultures, however, including some Asian, Latino, and African American cultures, both outside and within the United States, afford older adults respect and honor.

Typically, ageism occurs against older adults, but ageism also can occur toward younger adults. What expectations do you hold toward younger people? Does society expect younger adults to be immature and irresponsible? Raymer, Reed, Spiegel, and Purvanova (2017) examined ageism against younger workers. They found that older workers endorsed negative stereotypes of younger workers, believing that they had more work deficit characteristics (including perceptions of incompetence). How might these forms of ageism affect a younger and older adult who are applying for a sales clerk position?

Another form of prejudice is homophobia.

homophobia

Homophobia is prejudice and discrimination toward individuals based solely on their sexual orientation.

Like ageism, homophobia is a widespread prejudice in U.S. society and across the world (Herek & McLemore, 2013; Nosek, 2005). Data shows that over the past two decades, homophobia has decreased in many countries, particularly Western countries, where in the U.S. 72% of people now say homosexuality should be accepted by society (Poushter & Kent, 2020). Even in countries such as India where a majority of society is not accepting of homosexuality, a sharp increase from 15 to 37 percent acceptance has occurred over the last 10 years. However, homophobia and acceptance of homosexuality remains sharply divided by country and even region, and many areas remain hostile and unsafe environments for members of the LGTBQ+ (Lesbian, Gay, Transgender, Bisexual, Queer, and ‘+’ for the recognition of the limitless expressions of sexuality and gender) community. 

On the low end of the spectrum, negative attitudes towards the LGTBQ+ community often result in discrimination, such as the exclusion of LGBTQ+ people from social groups and the avoidance of LGBTQ+ neighbors and co-workers. This discrimination also extends to employers deliberately declining to hire qualified LGBTQ+ job applicants. In many regions and communities, members of the LGBTQ+ community may experience chronic fear and anxiety related to their acceptance and physical safety in public spaces.  

Discrimination in some cases can be implemented through discriminatory laws denying LGBTQ+ people their autonomy, access to healthcare, and reproductive rights and choices. Although the Matthew Shepard and James Byrd, Jr. Hate Crimes Prevention Act federally criminalizes hate crimes based on sexuality or gender, other aspects of people’s lives such as housing, private and public services, employment, and family law such as adoption vary by state (Human Rights Campaign, 2022). Beyond neglecting protection from discrimination, some states have passed legislation actively criminalizing and denying rights to this population, such as Tennessee’s recent legislation prohibiting drag performances and gender-affirming medical treatment for trans youth. Homophobic messages from individuals, society, and institutional structures such as government have significant negative mental and physical impacts on the LGBTQ+ population, as evidenced by the disproportionate burden of illness and suicide in this population. 

Have you experienced or witnessed homophobia? If so, what stereotypes, prejudiced attitudes, and discrimination were evident?

Visit these websites to learn more about some of these issues and resources designed to challenge discrimination against the LBGTQ+ community. 

• ACLU is an organization that advocates for the rights of LGBTQ+ people to live with autonomy and without discrimination and challenging discriminatory laws.
• The Human Rights Campaign advocates for equality under law and empowerment of the LGTBQ+ community. 
• The Trevor Project seeks to provide resources, support, and advocacy for the LGTBQ+ community as they cope with stigma, discrimination, and violence in their communities and society at large.