• Define and give examples of operant conditioning
• Understand the difference between reinforcement and punishment
• Identify types of reinforcement and punishment

The previous sections of this module focused on the type of associative learning known as classical conditioning. Remember that in classical conditioning, something in the environment triggers a reflex automatically, and researchers train the organism to react to a different stimulus. Now we turn to the second type of associative learning, operant conditioning, also known as instrumental learning.

operant conditioning

In operant conditioning, organisms learn to associate a behavior and its consequence (Table 1). A pleasant consequence makes that behavior more likely to be repeated in the future.

For example, Spirit, a dolphin at the National Aquarium in Baltimore, does a flip in the air when her trainer blows a whistle. The consequence is that she gets a fish.

There can sometimes be gray areas in differentiating between what counts as classical or operant conditioning. An important distinction is that classical conditioning emphasizes the passive learning process where the learner responds involuntarily in an automatic, reflexive manner, while operant conditioning is active and involves choice. In operant conditioning, the learner voluntarily chooses if they want to perform the behavior to get the reward.

For example, Pavlov’s dogs couldn’t help but drool when hearing the bell (classical), but they could have made a choice to “roll over” in anticipation of a treat (operant).

The table below also highlights how in classical conditioning, the stimulus comes before the response, while in operant conditioning, it follows the behavior.

Table 1. Classical and Operant Conditioning Compared

	Classical Conditioning	Operant Conditioning
Conditioning approach	An unconditioned stimulus (such as food) is paired with a neutral stimulus (such as a bell). The neutral stimulus eventually becomes the conditioned stimulus, which brings about the conditioned response (salivation).	The target behavior is followed by reinforcement or punishment to either strengthen or weaken it, so that the learner is more likely to exhibit the desired behavior in the future.
Stimulus timing	The stimulus occurs immediately before the response.	The stimulus (either reinforcement or punishment) occurs soon after the response.

Psychologist B. F. Skinner saw that classical conditioning is limited to existing behaviors that are reflexively elicited, and it doesn’t account for new behaviors such as riding a bike. He proposed a theory about how such behaviors come about. Skinner believed that behavior is motivated by the consequences we receive for the behavior: the reinforcements and punishments. Skinner’s idea that learning is the result of consequences is based on the law of effect, which was first proposed by psychologist Edward Thorndike.

the law of effect

According to the law of effect, behaviors that are followed by consequences that are satisfying to the organism are more likely to be repeated, and behaviors that are followed by unpleasant consequences are less likely to be repeated (Thorndike, 1911).

 

Essentially, if an organism does something that brings about a desired result, the organism is more likely to do it again. If an organism does something that does not bring about a desired result, the organism is less likely to do it again. An example of the law of effect is in employment. One of the reasons (and often the main reason) we show up for work is because we get paid to do so. If we stop getting paid, we will likely stop showing up—even if we love our job.

This video demonstrates how Thorndike experimented with cats to develop his ideas about learning.

Working with Thorndike’s law of effect as his foundation, Skinner began conducting scientific experiments on animals (mainly rats and pigeons) to determine how organisms learn through operant conditioning (Skinner, 1938). He placed these animals inside an operant conditioning chamber, which has come to be known as a “Skinner box” (Figure 1). A Skinner box contains a lever (for rats) or disk (for pigeons) that the animal can press or peck for a food reward via the dispenser. Speakers and lights can be associated with certain behaviors. A recorder counts the number of responses made by the animal.

Watch the following clip to learn more about operant conditioning and to watch an interview with Skinner as he talks about conditioning pigeons.You can view the transcript for “Operant conditioning” here (opens in a new window).