{"id":278,"date":"2025-04-17T16:35:35","date_gmt":"2025-04-17T16:35:35","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/englishcomp1\/chapter\/common-logical-fallacies\/"},"modified":"2025-07-16T17:31:01","modified_gmt":"2025-07-16T17:31:01","slug":"common-logical-fallacies","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/englishcomp1\/chapter\/common-logical-fallacies\/","title":{"raw":"Logical Fallacies: Learn It 1","rendered":"Logical Fallacies: Learn It 1"},"content":{"raw":"<section class=\"textbox learningGoals\" aria-label=\"Learning Goals\">\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><span data-sheets-root=\"1\">Describe logical fallacies<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><span data-sheets-root=\"1\">Differentiate between types of logical fallacies<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><span data-sheets-root=\"1\">Evaluate logical fallacies in texts<\/span><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/section>When evaluating arguments, it's important to understand the difference between facts, opinions, and arguments. A <strong>fact<\/strong> is a statement that can be proven or disproven, while an <strong>opinion<\/strong> lacks supporting evidence and often relies on assumptions. When an opinion is backed by relevant, persuasive, and logical evidence, it becomes a strong <strong>argument<\/strong>.\r\n\r\nHowever, not all arguments are well-supported\u2014some contain logical fallacies.\r\n\r\n<section class=\"textbox keyTakeaway\" aria-label=\"Key Takeaway\">\r\n<h3>logical fallacies<\/h3>\r\nA <strong>logical fallacy<\/strong> is a flaw in reasoning or a flawed structure that weakens an argument. Logical fallacies are often caused by faulty logic, misleading connections, or false assumptions.\r\n\r\n<\/section>Politicians, media outlets, and persuasive speakers often use logical fallacies to mislead audiences, as these flawed arguments can appear reasonable while subtly exploiting emotional, intellectual, and psychological biases. Developing the ability to recognize logical fallacies not only helps you avoid being misled but also strengthens your own arguments, ensuring that your reasoning remains clear, logical, and credible.\r\n<h2>Types of Logical Fallacies<\/h2>\r\nRead each common fallacy carefully, then try to come up with your own example of that fallacy. First are some fallacies that misuse appeals to logos or attempt to manipulate the logic of an argument:\r\n<h3>Fallacies related to logos<\/h3>\r\n<table style=\"height: 278px;\">\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr style=\"height: 15px;\">\r\n<td style=\"height: 15px; width: 113.418px;\"><strong>Fallacy<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"height: 15px; width: 487.949px;\"><strong>Description<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"height: 15px; width: 404.18px;\"><strong>Example<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr style=\"height: 47px;\">\r\n<td style=\"height: 47px; width: 113.418px;\">Hasty generalization<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"height: 47px; width: 487.949px;\">jumping to conclusions based upon an unrepresentative sample or insufficient evidence.<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"height: 47px; width: 404.18px;\">Example 1: \u201c10 of the last 14 National Spelling Bee Champions have been Indian American. Indian Americans must all be great spellers!\u201d Example 2: \"Some teenagers in our community recently vandalized the park downtown. Teenagers are so irresponsible and destructive.\"<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr style=\"height: 47px;\">\r\n<td style=\"height: 47px; width: 113.418px;\">Appeal to ignorance\u2014true believer\u2019s form<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"height: 47px; width: 487.949px;\">arguing along the lines that if an opponent can\u2019t prove something isn\u2019t the case, then it is reasonable to believe that it is the case; transfers the burden of proof away from the person making the claim (the proponent).<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"height: 47px; width: 404.18px;\">\u201cYou can\u2019t prove that extraterrestrials haven\u2019t visited earth, so it is reasonable to believe that they have visited earth.\u201d<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr style=\"height: 63px;\">\r\n<td style=\"height: 63px; width: 113.418px;\">Appeal to ignorance\u2014skeptic\u2019s form<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"height: 63px; width: 487.949px;\">confusing absence of evidence with evidence of absence; assumes that if you cannot now prove something exists, then it is shown that it doesn\u2019t exist.<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"height: 63px; width: 404.18px;\">\u201cThere\u2019s no proof that starting classes later in the day will improve the performance of our high school students; therefore, this change in schedule will not work.\u201d<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr style=\"height: 31px;\">\r\n<td style=\"height: 31px; width: 113.418px;\">Begging the question<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"height: 31px; width: 487.949px;\">circular argument because the premise is the same as the claim that you are trying to prove.<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"height: 31px; width: 404.18px;\">\u201cThis legislation is sinful because it is the wrong thing to do.\u201d<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr style=\"height: 15.5px;\">\r\n<td style=\"height: 15px; width: 113.418px;\">False dilemma or false dichotomy<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"height: 15px; width: 487.949px;\">misuse of the either\/or argument; presenting only two options when other choices exist<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"height: 15px; width: 404.18px;\">\u201cEither we pass this ordinance or there will be rioting in the streets.\u201d OR \" If you are not with us, you are against us.\"<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr style=\"height: 15px;\">\r\n<td style=\"height: 15px; width: 113.418px;\">Post hoc ergo propter hoc<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"height: 15px; width: 487.949px;\">Latin phrase meaning \u201cafter this, therefore because of this\u201d; confuses correlation with causation by concluding that an event preceding a second event must be the cause of that second event.<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"height: 15px; width: 404.18px;\">\u201cMy child was diagnosed with autism after receiving vaccinations. That is proof that vaccines are to blame.\u201d OR \"It rained just before the car died. The rain caused the car to break down.\"<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr style=\"height: 15px;\">\r\n<td style=\"height: 15px; width: 113.418px;\">Non sequitur<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"height: 15px; width: 487.949px;\">Latin for \u201cdoes not follow\u201d; the conclusion cannot be inferred from the premises because there is a break in the logical connection between a claim and the premises that are meant to support it, either because a premise is untrue (or missing) or because the relationship between premises does not support the deduction stated in the claim.<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"height: 15px; width: 404.18px;\">\u201cIf she is a Radford student, she is a member of a sorority. She is a Radford student. Therefore she is a member of a sorority.\u201d OR \"I hear the rain falling outside my window; therefore, the sun is not shining.\"<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr style=\"height: 15px;\">\r\n<td style=\"height: 15px; width: 113.418px;\">Smoke screen or Red Herring<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"height: 15px; width: 487.949px;\">avoiding the real issue or a tough question by introducing an unrelated topic as a distraction; sometimes called a red herring.<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"height: 15px; width: 404.18px;\">\u201cMy opponent says I am weak on crime, but I have been one of the most reliable participants in city council meetings.\u201d<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr style=\"height: 15px;\">\r\n<td style=\"height: 15px; width: 113.418px;\">Straw man<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"height: 15px; width: 487.949px;\">pretending to criticize an opponent\u2019s position but actually misrepresenting his or her view as simpler and\/or more extreme than it is and therefore easier to refute than the original or actual position; unfairly undermines the credibility of claim, if not the source of claim.<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"height: 15px; width: 404.18px;\">\u201cSenator Smith says we should cut back the Defense budget. His position is that we should let down our defenses and just trust our enemies not to attack us!\u201d<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<h3>Fallacies related to pathos<\/h3>\r\nSee below for the most common fallacies that misuse appeals to pathos, or emotion.\r\n<table>\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr style=\"height: 15px;\">\r\n<td style=\"height: 15px; width: 113.418px;\"><strong>Fallacy<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"height: 15px; width: 487.949px;\"><strong>Description<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td style=\"height: 15px; width: 404.18px;\"><strong>Example<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 113.418px;\">Appeal to fear<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 487.949px;\">using scare tactics; emphasizing threats or exaggerating possible dangers.<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 308px;\">\u201cWithout this additional insurance, you could find yourself broke and homeless.\u201d OR\u00a0\"Elizabeth Smith doesn\u2019t understand foreign policy. If you elect Elizabeth Smith as president, we will be attacked by terrorists.\"<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 113.418px;\">Appeal to guilt\/appeal to pity<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 487.949px;\">trying to evoke an emotional reaction that will cause the audience to behave sympathetically even if it means disregarding the issue at hand.<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 404.18px;\">\u201cI know I missed assignments, but if you fail me, I will lose my financial aid and have to drop out.\u201d<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 113.418px;\">Slippery Slope<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 487.949px;\">making an unsupported or inadequately supported claim that \u201cOne thing inevitably leads to another.\u201d This may be considered a fallacy of logos as well as pathos but is placed in this section because it often is used to evoke the emotion of fear.<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 404.18px;\">\u201cWe can\u2019t legalize marijuana; if we do, then the next thing you know people will be strung out on heroin.\u201d<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 113.418px;\">Bandwagon<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 487.949px;\">The bandwagon fallacy is also sometimes called the \"appeal to common belief\"\u00a0or \"appeal to the masses\"\u00a0because it\u2019s\u00a0all about getting people to do or think something because \u201ceveryone else is doing it\u201d or \u201ceverything else thinks this.\u201d<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 404.18px;\">\"Everyone is getting tattoos in college, so you might as well do it too.\"<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<h3>Fallacies related to ethos<\/h3>\r\nBeyond lying about their own credentials, authors may employ a number of fallacies to lure you to their point of view. Some of the more common techniques appear in the chart below. When you recognize these fallacies being committed you should question the credibility of the speaker and the legitimacy of the argument.\r\n<table>\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><strong>Fallacy<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td><strong>Description<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<td><strong>Example<\/strong><\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Ad Hominem<\/td>\r\n<td>Attacking the person making an argument rather than the argument itself. Sometimes called\u00a0name-calling\u00a0or the\u00a0personal-attack\u00a0fallacy.<\/td>\r\n<td>Of course that doctor advocates vaccination\u2014he probably owns stock in a pharmaceutical company. OR\u00a0Person 1: \"I am for raising the minimum wage in our state.\" Person 2: \"She is for raising the minimum wage, but she is not even smart enough to run a business.\"<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>False Authority<\/td>\r\n<td>Relying on claims of expertise when the claimed expert (a) lacks adequate background\/credentials in the relevant field, (b) departs in major ways from the consensus in the field, or (c) is biased, e.g., has a financial stake in the outcome.<\/td>\r\n<td>Dr. X is an engineer, and he doesn\u2019t believe in global warming.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>Guilt by Association<\/td>\r\n<td>Linking the person making an argument to an unpopular person or group.<\/td>\r\n<td>My opponent is a card-carrying member of the coastal elite.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\nThe first step to avoiding logical fallacies in your own writing is learning how to identify them in other writing. You can find examples of logical fallacies on the news, on the internet, and on the street. Sometimes these fallacies are egregious and obvious (think about the headlines you see in the tabloids), but other times the logical issues are less obvious.\r\n\r\n<section class=\"textbox tryIt\" aria-label=\"Try It\">[ohm2_question]40598[\/ohm2_question]\r\n\r\n<\/section>","rendered":"<section class=\"textbox learningGoals\" aria-label=\"Learning Goals\">\n<ul>\n<li><span data-sheets-root=\"1\">Describe logical fallacies<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span data-sheets-root=\"1\">Differentiate between types of logical fallacies<\/span><\/li>\n<li><span data-sheets-root=\"1\">Evaluate logical fallacies in texts<\/span><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/section>\n<p>When evaluating arguments, it&#8217;s important to understand the difference between facts, opinions, and arguments. A <strong>fact<\/strong> is a statement that can be proven or disproven, while an <strong>opinion<\/strong> lacks supporting evidence and often relies on assumptions. When an opinion is backed by relevant, persuasive, and logical evidence, it becomes a strong <strong>argument<\/strong>.<\/p>\n<p>However, not all arguments are well-supported\u2014some contain logical fallacies.<\/p>\n<section class=\"textbox keyTakeaway\" aria-label=\"Key Takeaway\">\n<h3>logical fallacies<\/h3>\n<p>A <strong>logical fallacy<\/strong> is a flaw in reasoning or a flawed structure that weakens an argument. Logical fallacies are often caused by faulty logic, misleading connections, or false assumptions.<\/p>\n<\/section>\n<p>Politicians, media outlets, and persuasive speakers often use logical fallacies to mislead audiences, as these flawed arguments can appear reasonable while subtly exploiting emotional, intellectual, and psychological biases. Developing the ability to recognize logical fallacies not only helps you avoid being misled but also strengthens your own arguments, ensuring that your reasoning remains clear, logical, and credible.<\/p>\n<h2>Types of Logical Fallacies<\/h2>\n<p>Read each common fallacy carefully, then try to come up with your own example of that fallacy. First are some fallacies that misuse appeals to logos or attempt to manipulate the logic of an argument:<\/p>\n<h3>Fallacies related to logos<\/h3>\n<table style=\"height: 278px;\">\n<tbody>\n<tr style=\"height: 15px;\">\n<td style=\"height: 15px; width: 113.418px;\"><strong>Fallacy<\/strong><\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 15px; width: 487.949px;\"><strong>Description<\/strong><\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 15px; width: 404.18px;\"><strong>Example<\/strong><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr style=\"height: 47px;\">\n<td style=\"height: 47px; width: 113.418px;\">Hasty generalization<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 47px; width: 487.949px;\">jumping to conclusions based upon an unrepresentative sample or insufficient evidence.<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 47px; width: 404.18px;\">Example 1: \u201c10 of the last 14 National Spelling Bee Champions have been Indian American. Indian Americans must all be great spellers!\u201d Example 2: &#8220;Some teenagers in our community recently vandalized the park downtown. Teenagers are so irresponsible and destructive.&#8221;<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr style=\"height: 47px;\">\n<td style=\"height: 47px; width: 113.418px;\">Appeal to ignorance\u2014true believer\u2019s form<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 47px; width: 487.949px;\">arguing along the lines that if an opponent can\u2019t prove something isn\u2019t the case, then it is reasonable to believe that it is the case; transfers the burden of proof away from the person making the claim (the proponent).<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 47px; width: 404.18px;\">\u201cYou can\u2019t prove that extraterrestrials haven\u2019t visited earth, so it is reasonable to believe that they have visited earth.\u201d<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr style=\"height: 63px;\">\n<td style=\"height: 63px; width: 113.418px;\">Appeal to ignorance\u2014skeptic\u2019s form<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 63px; width: 487.949px;\">confusing absence of evidence with evidence of absence; assumes that if you cannot now prove something exists, then it is shown that it doesn\u2019t exist.<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 63px; width: 404.18px;\">\u201cThere\u2019s no proof that starting classes later in the day will improve the performance of our high school students; therefore, this change in schedule will not work.\u201d<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr style=\"height: 31px;\">\n<td style=\"height: 31px; width: 113.418px;\">Begging the question<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 31px; width: 487.949px;\">circular argument because the premise is the same as the claim that you are trying to prove.<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 31px; width: 404.18px;\">\u201cThis legislation is sinful because it is the wrong thing to do.\u201d<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr style=\"height: 15.5px;\">\n<td style=\"height: 15px; width: 113.418px;\">False dilemma or false dichotomy<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 15px; width: 487.949px;\">misuse of the either\/or argument; presenting only two options when other choices exist<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 15px; width: 404.18px;\">\u201cEither we pass this ordinance or there will be rioting in the streets.\u201d OR &#8221; If you are not with us, you are against us.&#8221;<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr style=\"height: 15px;\">\n<td style=\"height: 15px; width: 113.418px;\">Post hoc ergo propter hoc<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 15px; width: 487.949px;\">Latin phrase meaning \u201cafter this, therefore because of this\u201d; confuses correlation with causation by concluding that an event preceding a second event must be the cause of that second event.<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 15px; width: 404.18px;\">\u201cMy child was diagnosed with autism after receiving vaccinations. That is proof that vaccines are to blame.\u201d OR &#8220;It rained just before the car died. The rain caused the car to break down.&#8221;<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr style=\"height: 15px;\">\n<td style=\"height: 15px; width: 113.418px;\">Non sequitur<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 15px; width: 487.949px;\">Latin for \u201cdoes not follow\u201d; the conclusion cannot be inferred from the premises because there is a break in the logical connection between a claim and the premises that are meant to support it, either because a premise is untrue (or missing) or because the relationship between premises does not support the deduction stated in the claim.<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 15px; width: 404.18px;\">\u201cIf she is a Radford student, she is a member of a sorority. She is a Radford student. Therefore she is a member of a sorority.\u201d OR &#8220;I hear the rain falling outside my window; therefore, the sun is not shining.&#8221;<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr style=\"height: 15px;\">\n<td style=\"height: 15px; width: 113.418px;\">Smoke screen or Red Herring<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 15px; width: 487.949px;\">avoiding the real issue or a tough question by introducing an unrelated topic as a distraction; sometimes called a red herring.<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 15px; width: 404.18px;\">\u201cMy opponent says I am weak on crime, but I have been one of the most reliable participants in city council meetings.\u201d<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr style=\"height: 15px;\">\n<td style=\"height: 15px; width: 113.418px;\">Straw man<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 15px; width: 487.949px;\">pretending to criticize an opponent\u2019s position but actually misrepresenting his or her view as simpler and\/or more extreme than it is and therefore easier to refute than the original or actual position; unfairly undermines the credibility of claim, if not the source of claim.<\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 15px; width: 404.18px;\">\u201cSenator Smith says we should cut back the Defense budget. His position is that we should let down our defenses and just trust our enemies not to attack us!\u201d<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<h3>Fallacies related to pathos<\/h3>\n<p>See below for the most common fallacies that misuse appeals to pathos, or emotion.<\/p>\n<table>\n<tbody>\n<tr style=\"height: 15px;\">\n<td style=\"height: 15px; width: 113.418px;\"><strong>Fallacy<\/strong><\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 15px; width: 487.949px;\"><strong>Description<\/strong><\/td>\n<td style=\"height: 15px; width: 404.18px;\"><strong>Example<\/strong><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 113.418px;\">Appeal to fear<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 487.949px;\">using scare tactics; emphasizing threats or exaggerating possible dangers.<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 308px;\">\u201cWithout this additional insurance, you could find yourself broke and homeless.\u201d OR\u00a0&#8220;Elizabeth Smith doesn\u2019t understand foreign policy. If you elect Elizabeth Smith as president, we will be attacked by terrorists.&#8221;<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 113.418px;\">Appeal to guilt\/appeal to pity<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 487.949px;\">trying to evoke an emotional reaction that will cause the audience to behave sympathetically even if it means disregarding the issue at hand.<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 404.18px;\">\u201cI know I missed assignments, but if you fail me, I will lose my financial aid and have to drop out.\u201d<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 113.418px;\">Slippery Slope<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 487.949px;\">making an unsupported or inadequately supported claim that \u201cOne thing inevitably leads to another.\u201d This may be considered a fallacy of logos as well as pathos but is placed in this section because it often is used to evoke the emotion of fear.<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 404.18px;\">\u201cWe can\u2019t legalize marijuana; if we do, then the next thing you know people will be strung out on heroin.\u201d<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 113.418px;\">Bandwagon<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 487.949px;\">The bandwagon fallacy is also sometimes called the &#8220;appeal to common belief&#8221;\u00a0or &#8220;appeal to the masses&#8221;\u00a0because it\u2019s\u00a0all about getting people to do or think something because \u201ceveryone else is doing it\u201d or \u201ceverything else thinks this.\u201d<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 404.18px;\">&#8220;Everyone is getting tattoos in college, so you might as well do it too.&#8221;<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<h3>Fallacies related to ethos<\/h3>\n<p>Beyond lying about their own credentials, authors may employ a number of fallacies to lure you to their point of view. Some of the more common techniques appear in the chart below. When you recognize these fallacies being committed you should question the credibility of the speaker and the legitimacy of the argument.<\/p>\n<table>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td><strong>Fallacy<\/strong><\/td>\n<td><strong>Description<\/strong><\/td>\n<td><strong>Example<\/strong><\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Ad Hominem<\/td>\n<td>Attacking the person making an argument rather than the argument itself. Sometimes called\u00a0name-calling\u00a0or the\u00a0personal-attack\u00a0fallacy.<\/td>\n<td>Of course that doctor advocates vaccination\u2014he probably owns stock in a pharmaceutical company. OR\u00a0Person 1: &#8220;I am for raising the minimum wage in our state.&#8221; Person 2: &#8220;She is for raising the minimum wage, but she is not even smart enough to run a business.&#8221;<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>False Authority<\/td>\n<td>Relying on claims of expertise when the claimed expert (a) lacks adequate background\/credentials in the relevant field, (b) departs in major ways from the consensus in the field, or (c) is biased, e.g., has a financial stake in the outcome.<\/td>\n<td>Dr. X is an engineer, and he doesn\u2019t believe in global warming.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Guilt by Association<\/td>\n<td>Linking the person making an argument to an unpopular person or group.<\/td>\n<td>My opponent is a card-carrying member of the coastal elite.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<p>The first step to avoiding logical fallacies in your own writing is learning how to identify them in other writing. You can find examples of logical fallacies on the news, on the internet, and on the street. 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