{"id":1574,"date":"2025-04-29T22:10:31","date_gmt":"2025-04-29T22:10:31","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/englishcomp1\/?post_type=chapter&#038;p=1574"},"modified":"2026-04-08T16:52:52","modified_gmt":"2026-04-08T16:52:52","slug":"grammar-basics-cheat-sheet","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/englishcomp1\/chapter\/grammar-basics-cheat-sheet\/","title":{"raw":"Grammar Basics: Cheat Sheet","rendered":"Grammar Basics: Cheat Sheet"},"content":{"raw":"The links below are designed for print; more screen reader friendly documents can be found on the Students: Additional Lumen Resources page.\r\n<h4 style=\"text-align: right;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/course-building.s3.us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/English+Comp\/Cheat+Sheets\/English+Composition+Cheat+Sheet+Module+12.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Download a pdf of this page here.<\/a><\/h4>\r\n<h4 style=\"text-align: right;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/course-building.s3.us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/English+Comp\/Cheat+Sheets\/Spanish+-+English+Composition+Cheat+Sheet+Module+12.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Download the Spanish version here.<\/a><\/h4>\r\n<h2>Essential Concepts<\/h2>\r\n<h3>Nouns and Pronouns<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"139\" data-end=\"467\"><strong data-start=\"139\" data-end=\"212\">Nouns name people, places, things, or ideas and come in several forms. <\/strong>Nouns can be proper (specific and capitalized), common (general), concrete (tangible), abstract (intangible), compound (two words joined), or verbal (derived from verbs but used as nouns). Proper noun-based adjectives are capitalized only when literal.<\/li>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"471\" data-end=\"830\"><strong data-start=\"471\" data-end=\"555\">Noun behavior affects grammar through agreement, countability, and pluralization. <\/strong>Nouns must agree with verbs, especially collective nouns that may be singular or plural depending on context. Count nouns can be pluralized, while non-count nouns cannot. Regular plurals follow predictable patterns; irregular plurals do not and often require memorization.<\/li>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"834\" data-end=\"1100\"><strong data-start=\"834\" data-end=\"909\">Pronouns replace nouns and must clearly refer back to their antecedents. <\/strong>Personal, reflexive, demonstrative, indefinite, and relative pronouns all substitute for nouns. Ensuring pronouns clearly and correctly refer to their antecedents is essential for clarity.<\/li>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"1104\" data-end=\"1448\"><strong data-start=\"1104\" data-end=\"1173\">Pronouns have different forms depending on their grammatical role. <\/strong>Subject pronouns perform actions (e.g., <em data-start=\"1216\" data-end=\"1221\">she<\/em> runs), object pronouns receive actions (e.g., they saw <em data-start=\"1277\" data-end=\"1282\">her<\/em>), and possessive pronouns show ownership (e.g., <em data-start=\"1331\" data-end=\"1336\">his<\/em> book, <em data-start=\"1343\" data-end=\"1349\" data-is-only-node=\"\">mine<\/em> is new). Reflexive pronouns refer back to the subject of the sentence (e.g., he blamed <em data-start=\"1437\" data-end=\"1446\">himself<\/em>).<\/li>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"1452\" data-end=\"1759\"><strong data-start=\"1452\" data-end=\"1520\">Relative pronouns link clauses and vary by context and formality. <\/strong>Use <em data-start=\"1527\" data-end=\"1532\">who<\/em> for people and <em data-start=\"1548\" data-end=\"1554\">that<\/em> or <em data-start=\"1558\" data-end=\"1565\">which<\/em> for things. <em data-start=\"1578\" data-end=\"1584\" data-is-only-node=\"\">Whom<\/em> is used for objects of verbs or prepositions, though <em data-start=\"1638\" data-end=\"1643\">who<\/em> is increasingly acceptable. Commas help determine when to use <em data-start=\"1706\" data-end=\"1712\">that<\/em> (restrictive) versus <em data-start=\"1734\" data-end=\"1741\">which<\/em> (nonrestrictive).<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h3>Verbs<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"144\" data-end=\"497\"><strong data-start=\"144\" data-end=\"222\">Verbs come in several core types that shape sentence structure and meaning. <\/strong>Verbs may be active (expressing action), linking (equating subject and complement), helping (supporting another verb), or multi-word (like phrasal verbs with distinct meanings).<\/li>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"501\" data-end=\"771\"><strong data-start=\"501\" data-end=\"565\">Transitive and intransitive verbs differ based on object use. <\/strong>Transitive verbs require a direct object to complete their meaning (e.g., \u201cShe writes poems\u201d), while intransitive verbs do not (e.g., \u201cShe writes\u201d). Some verbs can function as both, depending on context.<\/li>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"775\" data-end=\"1056\"><strong data-start=\"775\" data-end=\"839\">Verb tense and aspect determine the time and duration of actions. <\/strong>Simple, perfect, progressive, and perfect progressive aspects allow for precision in describing when and how actions occur. Tense consistency is essential for clarity and grammatical correctness throughout writing.<\/li>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"1060\" data-end=\"1341\"><strong data-start=\"1060\" data-end=\"1142\">Subject-verb agreement ensures that verbs match their subjects in number and person. <\/strong>Singular subjects require singular verbs, and plural subjects take plural verbs. Special attention is needed with compound subjects, collective nouns, and constructions using <em data-start=\"1320\" data-end=\"1324\">or<\/em> and <em data-start=\"1329\" data-end=\"1340\">either\/or<\/em>.<\/li>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"1345\" data-end=\"1635\"><strong data-start=\"1345\" data-end=\"1442\">Non-finite verbs (gerunds, participles, and infinitives) function differently from main verbs.<\/strong> Gerunds end in -ing and act like nouns, participles modify nouns like adjectives, and infinitives often begin with \"to\" and can serve various roles\u2014making them essential for constructing more complex sentence structures.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h3>Other Parts of Speech<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"112\" data-end=\"475\"><strong data-start=\"112\" data-end=\"190\">Adjectives modify nouns and follow a specific order. <\/strong>Adjectives describe qualities like size, color, age, and opinion. When using several together, they should follow the \u201croyal\u201d order (Determiner, Opinion, Size, Age, Shape, Color, Origin, Material, Purpose), and only coordinate adjectives\u2014those from the same category\u2014require commas.<\/li>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"112\" data-end=\"475\"><strong data-start=\"804\" data-end=\"909\">Adverbs describe verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs. <\/strong>Adverbs answer how, when, where, or to what extent something happens and often (but not always) end in -ly. They can modify entire sentences and follow their own standard order: Manner, Place, Frequency, Time, Purpose.<\/li>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"1134\" data-end=\"1466\"><strong data-start=\"1134\" data-end=\"1222\">Prepositions show relationships and must pair correctly with their objects and verbs. <\/strong>Prepositions indicate relationships in time, space, and logic, and form prepositional phrases with nouns or pronouns. Word choice matters\u2014verbs often require specific prepositions, and incorrect pairings can change meaning or lead to errors.<\/li>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"1470\" data-end=\"1813\"><strong data-start=\"1470\" data-end=\"1579\">Articles (\u2018a,\u2019 \u2018an,\u2019 and \u2018the\u2019) introduce nouns and follow rules based on sound, specificity, and context. <\/strong>Use \u201ca\u201d before consonant sounds and \u201can\u201d before vowel sounds. \u201cThe\u201d refers to specific, known nouns. Articles generally appear at the start of noun phrases, though some modifiers (e.g., \u201call,\u201d \u201csuch,\u201d \u201cquite\u201d) may come before them.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong data-start=\"2\" data-end=\"90\" data-is-only-node=\"\">Conjunctions join words, phrases, or clauses and follow specific rules based on type. <\/strong>Coordinating conjunctions (FANBOYS) link equal elements and use commas when joining independent clauses. Subordinating conjunctions join dependent and independent clauses, requiring a comma only when the dependent clause comes first. Correlative conjunctions work in pairs and demand subject-verb agreement. Adverbial conjunctions link complete thoughts and need a semicolon before and a comma after when joining sentences.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h3>Sentence Structure<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"77\" data-end=\"396\"><strong data-start=\"77\" data-end=\"140\">Every complete sentence must have a subject and a predicate. <\/strong>The subject tells who or what the sentence is about, while the predicate tells what the subject does or is. Sentences can have compound subjects or predicates, and in rare cases, the predicate may come before the subject in inverted sentence structures.<\/li>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"400\" data-end=\"698\"><strong data-start=\"400\" data-end=\"464\">Direct and indirect objects clarify the action in a sentence. <\/strong>A direct object receives the action of the verb (answering \u201cwhat?\u201d or \u201cwhom?\u201d), while an indirect object tells to or for whom the action is done. Both can appear in the same sentence and are key to understanding verb relationships.<\/li>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"702\" data-end=\"989\"><strong data-start=\"702\" data-end=\"759\">Phrases and clauses serve different grammatical roles. <\/strong>Phrases are groups of words without both a subject and a verb, while clauses include both. Independent clauses express complete thoughts and can stand alone; dependent clauses cannot and must be attached to independent clauses.<\/li>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"993\" data-end=\"1306\"><strong data-start=\"993\" data-end=\"1049\">Sentence patterns and types affect clarity and style. <\/strong>Common sentence patterns include subject + verb, subject + verb + direct object, and subject + verb + indirect object + direct object. Sentences can also be classified as simple, compound, complex, or compound-complex depending on their clause structure.<\/li>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"1310\" data-end=\"1607\"><strong data-start=\"1310\" data-end=\"1361\">Punctuation patterns support sentence structure. <\/strong>Correct use of commas, semicolons, and periods depends on sentence type. For example, compound sentences need punctuation between independent clauses, and introductory or dependent clauses often require commas to separate them from main ideas.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h2>Glossary<\/h2>\r\n<div class=\"pointer-events-none h-px w-px\" aria-hidden=\"true\" data-edge=\"true\">\r\n<p data-start=\"220\" data-end=\"333\"><strong data-start=\"220\" data-end=\"236\">active verbs<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"220\" data-end=\"333\">verbs that express a specific action performed by the subject (e.g., run, jump, contain, kick)<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"335\" data-end=\"472\"><strong data-start=\"335\" data-end=\"348\">adjective<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"335\" data-end=\"472\">an adjective describes or modifies a noun, providing more detail about qualities like size, color, number, or personality<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"474\" data-end=\"612\"><strong data-start=\"474\" data-end=\"484\">adverb<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"474\" data-end=\"612\">a word that modifies a verb, adjective, or another adverb by describing how, when, where, or to what extent something happens<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"614\" data-end=\"879\"><strong data-start=\"614\" data-end=\"640\">adverbial conjunctions<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"614\" data-end=\"879\">words or phrases that connect independent clauses and show relationships like cause, contrast, or sequence (e.g., however, therefore, moreover). they require punctuation, often a semicolon before and a comma after when joining sentences<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"881\" data-end=\"962\"><strong data-start=\"881\" data-end=\"895\">antecedent<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"881\" data-end=\"962\">the noun that a pronoun refers back to or replaces in a sentence<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"964\" data-end=\"1155\"><strong data-start=\"964\" data-end=\"986\">antecedent clarity<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"964\" data-end=\"1155\">the principle that a pronoun\u2019s reference must be unmistakably clear, ensuring the noun it replaces (its antecedent) is easily identifiable and avoids reader confusion<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"1157\" data-end=\"1304\"><strong data-start=\"1157\" data-end=\"1168\">article<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"1157\" data-end=\"1304\">an article is a word placed before a noun to show whether the noun is specific or general. English has three articles: a, an, and the<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"1306\" data-end=\"1474\"><strong data-start=\"1306\" data-end=\"1325\">bare infinitive<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"1306\" data-end=\"1474\">a bare infinitive is the base form of a verb used without to, typically following modal verbs or certain expressions (e.g., can go, let him speak)<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"1476\" data-end=\"1637\"><strong data-start=\"1476\" data-end=\"1486\">clause<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"1476\" data-end=\"1637\">a clause is a group of words that contains both a subject and a verb; it can be independent (a complete sentence) or dependent (a sentence fragment)<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"1639\" data-end=\"1856\"><strong data-start=\"1639\" data-end=\"1659\">collective nouns<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"1639\" data-end=\"1856\">nouns that refer to a group of individuals acting as a single unit or as separate members, such as family, team, or audience; verb agreement depends on whether the group is viewed as one or many<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"1858\" data-end=\"2047\"><strong data-start=\"1858\" data-end=\"1878\">command sentence<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"1858\" data-end=\"2047\">a command sentence is a simple sentence that gives a direction or instruction and typically omits the subject, which is implied to be \"you.\" Example: Close the window.<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"2049\" data-end=\"2198\"><strong data-start=\"2049\" data-end=\"2065\">common nouns<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"2049\" data-end=\"2198\">general names for people, places, things, or ideas that are not capitalized unless they start a sentence (e.g., girl, city, watch)<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"2200\" data-end=\"2365\"><strong data-start=\"2200\" data-end=\"2225\">comparable adjectives<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"2200\" data-end=\"2365\">comparable adjectives show varying degrees of a quality, using forms like more (comparative) and most (superlative) to express comparison<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"2367\" data-end=\"2525\"><strong data-start=\"2367\" data-end=\"2400\">complement (of a preposition)<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"2367\" data-end=\"2525\">the noun or pronoun that follows a preposition to complete its meaning (e.g., in the house, under the table, after dinner)<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"2527\" data-end=\"2691\"><strong data-start=\"2527\" data-end=\"2547\">complex sentence<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"2527\" data-end=\"2691\">a complex sentence contains one independent clause and at least one dependent clause. Example: Because it was raining, we canceled the picnic.<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"2693\" data-end=\"2869\"><strong data-start=\"2693\" data-end=\"2711\">compound nouns<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"2693\" data-end=\"2869\">nouns formed by combining two or more words into a single unit, written as one word (daydream), hyphenated (dry-cleaning), or with a space (vacuum cleaner)<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"2871\" data-end=\"3070\"><strong data-start=\"2871\" data-end=\"2893\">compound predicate<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"2871\" data-end=\"3070\">a compound predicate has two or more verbs or verb phrases that share the same subject, connected by a coordinating conjunction. Example: She washed the dishes and dried them.<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"3072\" data-end=\"3304\"><strong data-start=\"3072\" data-end=\"3093\">compound sentence<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"3072\" data-end=\"3304\">a compound sentence contains two or more independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction, a semicolon, or a conjunctive adverb. Example: The experiment was successful, but the results were unexpected.<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"3306\" data-end=\"3532\"><strong data-start=\"3306\" data-end=\"3335\">compound-complex sentence<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"3306\" data-end=\"3532\">a compound-complex sentence contains at least two independent clauses and at least one dependent clause. Example: Although she was tired, she finished the project, and she emailed it to her boss.<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"3534\" data-end=\"3616\"><strong data-start=\"3534\" data-end=\"3550\">conjunctions<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"3534\" data-end=\"3616\">words that connect words, phrases, or clauses within a sentence<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"3618\" data-end=\"3826\"><strong data-start=\"3618\" data-end=\"3647\">coordinating conjunctions<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"3618\" data-end=\"3826\">conjunctions that join equal elements (e.g., two nouns, phrases, or independent clauses). The most common are remembered by the acronym FANBOYS: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"3828\" data-end=\"4064\"><strong data-start=\"3828\" data-end=\"3856\">correlative conjunctions<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"3828\" data-end=\"4064\">paired conjunctions (e.g., either...or, neither...nor, not only...but also) that link equal sentence elements, requiring careful attention to subject-verb agreement based on the element closest to the verb<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"4066\" data-end=\"4207\"><strong data-start=\"4066\" data-end=\"4081\">count nouns<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"4066\" data-end=\"4207\">nouns that can be counted and made plural (e.g., apple, book, fox); they can be used with numbers and articles like a or an<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"4209\" data-end=\"4337\"><strong data-start=\"4209\" data-end=\"4229\">definite article<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"4209\" data-end=\"4337\">the is the definite article; it refers to a specific noun that is already known to the reader or listener<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"4339\" data-end=\"4577\"><strong data-start=\"4339\" data-end=\"4364\">demonstrative pronoun<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"4339\" data-end=\"4577\">a pronoun that replaces a noun by pointing to something specific in relation to distance or time (e.g., this, that, these, those), with this and these indicating closeness and that and those indicating distance<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"4579\" data-end=\"4764\"><strong data-start=\"4579\" data-end=\"4599\">dependent clause<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"4579\" data-end=\"4764\">a dependent clause contains a subject and a verb but does not express a complete thought; it must be attached to an independent clause to form a complete sentence<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"4766\" data-end=\"4927\"><strong data-start=\"4766\" data-end=\"4783\">direct object<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"4766\" data-end=\"4927\">a direct object is a noun, pronoun, phrase, or clause that receives the action of the verb directly; it answers what? or whom? after the verb<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"4929\" data-end=\"5009\"><strong data-start=\"4929\" data-end=\"4939\">gerund<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"4929\" data-end=\"5009\">a verb ending in -ing that acts like a noun (e.g., swimming is fun)<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"80\" data-end=\"231\"><strong data-start=\"80\" data-end=\"97\">helping verbs<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"80\" data-end=\"231\">verbs that come before the main verb to form a verb phrase and express tense, mood, or voice (e.g., have eaten, is going, can ride)<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"233\" data-end=\"475\"><strong data-start=\"233\" data-end=\"255\">indefinite article<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"233\" data-end=\"475\">a and an are indefinite articles; they refer to a non-specific or general noun. Use <em data-start=\"342\" data-end=\"345\">a<\/em> before words beginning with a consonant sound (e.g., a cat), and <em data-start=\"411\" data-end=\"415\">an<\/em> before words beginning with a vowel sound (e.g., an orange)<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"477\" data-end=\"672\"><strong data-start=\"477\" data-end=\"499\">indefinite pronoun<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"477\" data-end=\"672\">a pronoun that refers to one or more unspecified people or things (e.g., anyone, each, nobody, one), often used to generalize or indicate unknown quantities or identities<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"674\" data-end=\"828\"><strong data-start=\"674\" data-end=\"696\">independent clause<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"674\" data-end=\"828\">an independent clause contains a subject and a verb and expresses a complete thought, making it able to stand alone as a sentence<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"830\" data-end=\"975\"><strong data-start=\"830\" data-end=\"844\">infinitive<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"830\" data-end=\"975\">an infinitive is the base form of a verb usually preceded by <em data-start=\"908\" data-end=\"912\">to<\/em> (e.g., to write) and functions as a noun, adjective, or adverb<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"977\" data-end=\"1079\"><strong data-start=\"977\" data-end=\"999\">intransitive verbs<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"977\" data-end=\"1079\">action verbs that do not require a direct object (e.g., he sleeps peacefully)<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"1081\" data-end=\"1242\"><strong data-start=\"1081\" data-end=\"1102\">irregular plurals<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"1081\" data-end=\"1242\">nouns that do not follow standard pluralization rules and instead change form in unique ways (e.g., man \u2192 men, mouse \u2192 mice, deer \u2192 deer)<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"1244\" data-end=\"1444\"><strong data-start=\"1244\" data-end=\"1263\">irregular verbs<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"1244\" data-end=\"1444\">verbs that do not follow standard patterns when changing tenses. instead of adding -ed for the past tense, they often change form entirely (e.g., go \u2192 went, run \u2192 ran, eat \u2192 ate)<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"1446\" data-end=\"1655\"><strong data-start=\"1446\" data-end=\"1463\">linking verbs<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"1446\" data-end=\"1655\">verbs that connect the subject to a subject complement, showing a state of being or condition rather than action (e.g., is, seems, becomes); they act like an equal sign (e.g., she is happy)<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"1657\" data-end=\"1853\"><strong data-start=\"1657\" data-end=\"1677\">multi-word verbs<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"1657\" data-end=\"1853\">verbs made up of two or more words that function together as a single verb and often carry a different meaning than the individual words (e.g., shut up, find out, carry out)<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"1855\" data-end=\"2011\"><strong data-start=\"1855\" data-end=\"1884\">non-comparable adjectives<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"1855\" data-end=\"2011\">non-comparable adjectives describe absolute or binary states (e.g., dead, true, unique) that generally do not vary in degree<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"2013\" data-end=\"2205\"><strong data-start=\"2013\" data-end=\"2032\">non-count nouns<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"2013\" data-end=\"2205\">nouns that represent a mass or concept that cannot be counted or made plural (e.g., furniture, advice, happiness); they require quantifiers like some, much, or a piece of<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"2207\" data-end=\"2370\"><strong data-start=\"2207\" data-end=\"2227\">non-finite verbs<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"2207\" data-end=\"2370\">verb forms that do not show tense and cannot stand alone as the main verb in a sentence. Types include gerunds, participles, and infinitives<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"2372\" data-end=\"2530\"><strong data-start=\"2372\" data-end=\"2380\">noun<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"2372\" data-end=\"2530\">words that name people, places, things, or ideas, including both general terms (e.g., book, city) and specific ones (e.g., Dr. Nguyen, Puerto Rico)<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"2532\" data-end=\"2723\"><strong data-start=\"2532\" data-end=\"2546\">participle<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"2532\" data-end=\"2723\">a verb form used as an adjective. present participles end in -ing (e.g., the sleeping baby); past participles often end in -ed, -en, or irregular forms (e.g., the broken toy)<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"2725\" data-end=\"2881\"><strong data-start=\"2725\" data-end=\"2745\">personal pronoun<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"2725\" data-end=\"2881\">a pronoun that replaces a specific noun referring to a person or thing (e.g., I, she, they) and changes form based on case and number<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"2883\" data-end=\"3023\"><strong data-start=\"2883\" data-end=\"2893\">phrase<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"2883\" data-end=\"3023\">a phrase is a group of words that acts as a single part of speech and lacks both a subject doing the action and a complete verb<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"3025\" data-end=\"3227\"><strong data-start=\"3025\" data-end=\"3058\">plural nouns: regular plurals<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"3025\" data-end=\"3227\">nouns that form the plural by following standard rules, usually by adding -s or -es (e.g., cats, foxes, heroes) or changing -y to -ies after a consonant (e.g., skies)<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"3229\" data-end=\"3354\"><strong data-start=\"3229\" data-end=\"3251\">possessive pronoun<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"3229\" data-end=\"3354\">a pronoun that shows ownership; may function independently (mine, yours) or modify a noun (my, your)<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"3356\" data-end=\"3600\"><strong data-start=\"3356\" data-end=\"3369\">predicate<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"3356\" data-end=\"3600\">the predicate is the part of a sentence that contains the verb and tells what the subject does, is, or experiences; it includes the verb and any modifiers or objects. Every complete sentence consists of a subject and a predicate<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"3602\" data-end=\"3797\"><strong data-start=\"3602\" data-end=\"3617\">preposition<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"3602\" data-end=\"3797\">a word that shows the relationship between its complement and another element in the sentence, often indicating direction, time, location, or cause (e.g., in, on, before, under)<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"3799\" data-end=\"3942\"><strong data-start=\"3799\" data-end=\"3810\">pronoun<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"3799\" data-end=\"3942\">a word that takes the place of a noun and can function as a subject or object in a sentence (e.g., he, they, this, who, everyone)<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"3944\" data-end=\"4130\"><strong data-start=\"3944\" data-end=\"3965\">pronoun agreement<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"3944\" data-end=\"4130\">the grammatical rule that a pronoun must match its antecedent in number (singular or plural), gender, and person to maintain clarity and correctness in a sentence<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"4132\" data-end=\"4265\"><strong data-start=\"4132\" data-end=\"4148\">proper nouns<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"4132\" data-end=\"4265\">specific names of people, places, or organizations that are always capitalized (e.g., New York, Google, Elizabeth)<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"4267\" data-end=\"4413\"><strong data-start=\"4267\" data-end=\"4288\">reflexive pronoun<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"4267\" data-end=\"4413\">a pronoun that refers back to the subject of the sentence and ends in -self or -selves (e.g., myself, herself, themselves)<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"4415\" data-end=\"4602\"><strong data-start=\"4415\" data-end=\"4435\">relative pronoun<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"4415\" data-end=\"4602\">a pronoun that introduces a dependent clause and relates it to a noun (e.g., who, whom, whose, that, which); used to add information or describe the noun it follows<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"4604\" data-end=\"4998\"><strong data-start=\"4604\" data-end=\"4633\">royal order of adjectives<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"4604\" data-end=\"4998\">the standard sequence in which multiple adjectives should appear before a noun to maintain clarity and natural flow. When two or more adjectives are used, they typically follow this order: determiner \u2192 observation \u2192 size \u2192 shape \u2192 age \u2192 color \u2192 origin \u2192 material \u2192 qualifier \u2192 noun. For example: \u201cThose beautiful large round old blue Italian glass serving bowls\u201d<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"5000\" data-end=\"5305\"><strong data-start=\"5000\" data-end=\"5026\">royal order of adverbs<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"5000\" data-end=\"5305\">the typical sequence in which multiple adverbs appear in a sentence\u2014manner, place, frequency, time, and purpose\u2014to maintain clarity and natural flow. Example: She sang (manner) beautifully (place) in the hall (frequency) every week (time) to practice for the recital (purpose).<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"5307\" data-end=\"5494\"><strong data-start=\"5307\" data-end=\"5326\">simple sentence<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"5307\" data-end=\"5494\">a simple sentence contains one independent clause and no dependent clauses, though it may have a compound subject or predicate. Example: The sun set behind the hills.<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"5496\" data-end=\"5649\"><strong data-start=\"5496\" data-end=\"5507\">subject<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"5496\" data-end=\"5649\">the subject is the noun, pronoun, phrase, or clause that a sentence is about. Every complete sentence consists of a subject and a predicate<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"5651\" data-end=\"5938\"><strong data-start=\"5651\" data-end=\"5677\">subject-verb agreement<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"5651\" data-end=\"5938\">the rule that verbs must match their subjects in number and person. Singular subjects take singular verbs (she writes), while plural subjects take plural verbs (they write). Compound subjects joined by <em data-start=\"5882\" data-end=\"5887\">and<\/em> require plural verbs (the cat and dog are outside)<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"5940\" data-end=\"6142\"><strong data-start=\"5940\" data-end=\"5970\">subordinating conjunctions<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"5940\" data-end=\"6142\">words that connect a dependent clause to an independent clause, showing relationships like time, cause, condition, or contrast (e.g., because, although, since, if, when)<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"6144\" data-end=\"6261\"><strong data-start=\"6144\" data-end=\"6164\">transitive verbs<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"6144\" data-end=\"6261\">action verbs that require a direct object to complete their meaning (e.g., she wrote a letter)<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"6263\" data-end=\"6496\"><strong data-start=\"6263\" data-end=\"6278\">verb tenses<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"6263\" data-end=\"6496\">forms of verbs that show when an action happens. The three basic tenses are: present (she works), past (she worked), and future (she will work). In the present tense, third-person singular subjects take an -s ending<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"6498\" data-end=\"6630\"><strong data-start=\"6498\" data-end=\"6512\">verb types<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"6498\" data-end=\"6630\">categories of verbs based on their function in a sentence, including active, linking, helping, and multi-word forms<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"6632\" data-end=\"6791\"><strong data-start=\"6632\" data-end=\"6648\">verbal nouns<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"6632\" data-end=\"6791\">nouns derived from verbs that function like regular nouns in a sentence; includes gerunds and other forms like running, jogging, and meeting<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>","rendered":"<p>The links below are designed for print; more screen reader friendly documents can be found on the Students: Additional Lumen Resources page.<\/p>\n<h4 style=\"text-align: right;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/course-building.s3.us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/English+Comp\/Cheat+Sheets\/English+Composition+Cheat+Sheet+Module+12.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Download a pdf of this page here.<\/a><\/h4>\n<h4 style=\"text-align: right;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/course-building.s3.us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/English+Comp\/Cheat+Sheets\/Spanish+-+English+Composition+Cheat+Sheet+Module+12.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Download the Spanish version here.<\/a><\/h4>\n<h2>Essential Concepts<\/h2>\n<h3>Nouns and Pronouns<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li data-start=\"139\" data-end=\"467\"><strong data-start=\"139\" data-end=\"212\">Nouns name people, places, things, or ideas and come in several forms. <\/strong>Nouns can be proper (specific and capitalized), common (general), concrete (tangible), abstract (intangible), compound (two words joined), or verbal (derived from verbs but used as nouns). Proper noun-based adjectives are capitalized only when literal.<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"471\" data-end=\"830\"><strong data-start=\"471\" data-end=\"555\">Noun behavior affects grammar through agreement, countability, and pluralization. <\/strong>Nouns must agree with verbs, especially collective nouns that may be singular or plural depending on context. Count nouns can be pluralized, while non-count nouns cannot. Regular plurals follow predictable patterns; irregular plurals do not and often require memorization.<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"834\" data-end=\"1100\"><strong data-start=\"834\" data-end=\"909\">Pronouns replace nouns and must clearly refer back to their antecedents. <\/strong>Personal, reflexive, demonstrative, indefinite, and relative pronouns all substitute for nouns. Ensuring pronouns clearly and correctly refer to their antecedents is essential for clarity.<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"1104\" data-end=\"1448\"><strong data-start=\"1104\" data-end=\"1173\">Pronouns have different forms depending on their grammatical role. <\/strong>Subject pronouns perform actions (e.g., <em data-start=\"1216\" data-end=\"1221\">she<\/em> runs), object pronouns receive actions (e.g., they saw <em data-start=\"1277\" data-end=\"1282\">her<\/em>), and possessive pronouns show ownership (e.g., <em data-start=\"1331\" data-end=\"1336\">his<\/em> book, <em data-start=\"1343\" data-end=\"1349\" data-is-only-node=\"\">mine<\/em> is new). Reflexive pronouns refer back to the subject of the sentence (e.g., he blamed <em data-start=\"1437\" data-end=\"1446\">himself<\/em>).<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"1452\" data-end=\"1759\"><strong data-start=\"1452\" data-end=\"1520\">Relative pronouns link clauses and vary by context and formality. <\/strong>Use <em data-start=\"1527\" data-end=\"1532\">who<\/em> for people and <em data-start=\"1548\" data-end=\"1554\">that<\/em> or <em data-start=\"1558\" data-end=\"1565\">which<\/em> for things. <em data-start=\"1578\" data-end=\"1584\" data-is-only-node=\"\">Whom<\/em> is used for objects of verbs or prepositions, though <em data-start=\"1638\" data-end=\"1643\">who<\/em> is increasingly acceptable. Commas help determine when to use <em data-start=\"1706\" data-end=\"1712\">that<\/em> (restrictive) versus <em data-start=\"1734\" data-end=\"1741\">which<\/em> (nonrestrictive).<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h3>Verbs<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li data-start=\"144\" data-end=\"497\"><strong data-start=\"144\" data-end=\"222\">Verbs come in several core types that shape sentence structure and meaning. <\/strong>Verbs may be active (expressing action), linking (equating subject and complement), helping (supporting another verb), or multi-word (like phrasal verbs with distinct meanings).<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"501\" data-end=\"771\"><strong data-start=\"501\" data-end=\"565\">Transitive and intransitive verbs differ based on object use. <\/strong>Transitive verbs require a direct object to complete their meaning (e.g., \u201cShe writes poems\u201d), while intransitive verbs do not (e.g., \u201cShe writes\u201d). Some verbs can function as both, depending on context.<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"775\" data-end=\"1056\"><strong data-start=\"775\" data-end=\"839\">Verb tense and aspect determine the time and duration of actions. <\/strong>Simple, perfect, progressive, and perfect progressive aspects allow for precision in describing when and how actions occur. Tense consistency is essential for clarity and grammatical correctness throughout writing.<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"1060\" data-end=\"1341\"><strong data-start=\"1060\" data-end=\"1142\">Subject-verb agreement ensures that verbs match their subjects in number and person. <\/strong>Singular subjects require singular verbs, and plural subjects take plural verbs. Special attention is needed with compound subjects, collective nouns, and constructions using <em data-start=\"1320\" data-end=\"1324\">or<\/em> and <em data-start=\"1329\" data-end=\"1340\">either\/or<\/em>.<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"1345\" data-end=\"1635\"><strong data-start=\"1345\" data-end=\"1442\">Non-finite verbs (gerunds, participles, and infinitives) function differently from main verbs.<\/strong> Gerunds end in -ing and act like nouns, participles modify nouns like adjectives, and infinitives often begin with &#8220;to&#8221; and can serve various roles\u2014making them essential for constructing more complex sentence structures.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h3>Other Parts of Speech<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li data-start=\"112\" data-end=\"475\"><strong data-start=\"112\" data-end=\"190\">Adjectives modify nouns and follow a specific order. <\/strong>Adjectives describe qualities like size, color, age, and opinion. When using several together, they should follow the \u201croyal\u201d order (Determiner, Opinion, Size, Age, Shape, Color, Origin, Material, Purpose), and only coordinate adjectives\u2014those from the same category\u2014require commas.<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"112\" data-end=\"475\"><strong data-start=\"804\" data-end=\"909\">Adverbs describe verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs. <\/strong>Adverbs answer how, when, where, or to what extent something happens and often (but not always) end in -ly. They can modify entire sentences and follow their own standard order: Manner, Place, Frequency, Time, Purpose.<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"1134\" data-end=\"1466\"><strong data-start=\"1134\" data-end=\"1222\">Prepositions show relationships and must pair correctly with their objects and verbs. <\/strong>Prepositions indicate relationships in time, space, and logic, and form prepositional phrases with nouns or pronouns. Word choice matters\u2014verbs often require specific prepositions, and incorrect pairings can change meaning or lead to errors.<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"1470\" data-end=\"1813\"><strong data-start=\"1470\" data-end=\"1579\">Articles (\u2018a,\u2019 \u2018an,\u2019 and \u2018the\u2019) introduce nouns and follow rules based on sound, specificity, and context. <\/strong>Use \u201ca\u201d before consonant sounds and \u201can\u201d before vowel sounds. \u201cThe\u201d refers to specific, known nouns. Articles generally appear at the start of noun phrases, though some modifiers (e.g., \u201call,\u201d \u201csuch,\u201d \u201cquite\u201d) may come before them.<\/li>\n<li><strong data-start=\"2\" data-end=\"90\" data-is-only-node=\"\">Conjunctions join words, phrases, or clauses and follow specific rules based on type. <\/strong>Coordinating conjunctions (FANBOYS) link equal elements and use commas when joining independent clauses. Subordinating conjunctions join dependent and independent clauses, requiring a comma only when the dependent clause comes first. Correlative conjunctions work in pairs and demand subject-verb agreement. Adverbial conjunctions link complete thoughts and need a semicolon before and a comma after when joining sentences.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h3>Sentence Structure<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li data-start=\"77\" data-end=\"396\"><strong data-start=\"77\" data-end=\"140\">Every complete sentence must have a subject and a predicate. <\/strong>The subject tells who or what the sentence is about, while the predicate tells what the subject does or is. Sentences can have compound subjects or predicates, and in rare cases, the predicate may come before the subject in inverted sentence structures.<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"400\" data-end=\"698\"><strong data-start=\"400\" data-end=\"464\">Direct and indirect objects clarify the action in a sentence. <\/strong>A direct object receives the action of the verb (answering \u201cwhat?\u201d or \u201cwhom?\u201d), while an indirect object tells to or for whom the action is done. Both can appear in the same sentence and are key to understanding verb relationships.<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"702\" data-end=\"989\"><strong data-start=\"702\" data-end=\"759\">Phrases and clauses serve different grammatical roles. <\/strong>Phrases are groups of words without both a subject and a verb, while clauses include both. Independent clauses express complete thoughts and can stand alone; dependent clauses cannot and must be attached to independent clauses.<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"993\" data-end=\"1306\"><strong data-start=\"993\" data-end=\"1049\">Sentence patterns and types affect clarity and style. <\/strong>Common sentence patterns include subject + verb, subject + verb + direct object, and subject + verb + indirect object + direct object. Sentences can also be classified as simple, compound, complex, or compound-complex depending on their clause structure.<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"1310\" data-end=\"1607\"><strong data-start=\"1310\" data-end=\"1361\">Punctuation patterns support sentence structure. <\/strong>Correct use of commas, semicolons, and periods depends on sentence type. For example, compound sentences need punctuation between independent clauses, and introductory or dependent clauses often require commas to separate them from main ideas.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h2>Glossary<\/h2>\n<div class=\"pointer-events-none h-px w-px\" aria-hidden=\"true\" data-edge=\"true\">\n<p data-start=\"220\" data-end=\"333\"><strong data-start=\"220\" data-end=\"236\">active verbs<\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"220\" data-end=\"333\">verbs that express a specific action performed by the subject (e.g., run, jump, contain, kick)<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"335\" data-end=\"472\"><strong data-start=\"335\" data-end=\"348\">adjective<\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"335\" data-end=\"472\">an adjective describes or modifies a noun, providing more detail about qualities like size, color, number, or personality<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"474\" data-end=\"612\"><strong data-start=\"474\" data-end=\"484\">adverb<\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"474\" data-end=\"612\">a word that modifies a verb, adjective, or another adverb by describing how, when, where, or to what extent something happens<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"614\" data-end=\"879\"><strong data-start=\"614\" data-end=\"640\">adverbial conjunctions<\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"614\" data-end=\"879\">words or phrases that connect independent clauses and show relationships like cause, contrast, or sequence (e.g., however, therefore, moreover). they require punctuation, often a semicolon before and a comma after when joining sentences<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"881\" data-end=\"962\"><strong data-start=\"881\" data-end=\"895\">antecedent<\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"881\" data-end=\"962\">the noun that a pronoun refers back to or replaces in a sentence<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"964\" data-end=\"1155\"><strong data-start=\"964\" data-end=\"986\">antecedent clarity<\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"964\" data-end=\"1155\">the principle that a pronoun\u2019s reference must be unmistakably clear, ensuring the noun it replaces (its antecedent) is easily identifiable and avoids reader confusion<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"1157\" data-end=\"1304\"><strong data-start=\"1157\" data-end=\"1168\">article<\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"1157\" data-end=\"1304\">an article is a word placed before a noun to show whether the noun is specific or general. English has three articles: a, an, and the<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"1306\" data-end=\"1474\"><strong data-start=\"1306\" data-end=\"1325\">bare infinitive<\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"1306\" data-end=\"1474\">a bare infinitive is the base form of a verb used without to, typically following modal verbs or certain expressions (e.g., can go, let him speak)<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"1476\" data-end=\"1637\"><strong data-start=\"1476\" data-end=\"1486\">clause<\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"1476\" data-end=\"1637\">a clause is a group of words that contains both a subject and a verb; it can be independent (a complete sentence) or dependent (a sentence fragment)<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"1639\" data-end=\"1856\"><strong data-start=\"1639\" data-end=\"1659\">collective nouns<\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"1639\" data-end=\"1856\">nouns that refer to a group of individuals acting as a single unit or as separate members, such as family, team, or audience; verb agreement depends on whether the group is viewed as one or many<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"1858\" data-end=\"2047\"><strong data-start=\"1858\" data-end=\"1878\">command sentence<\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"1858\" data-end=\"2047\">a command sentence is a simple sentence that gives a direction or instruction and typically omits the subject, which is implied to be &#8220;you.&#8221; Example: Close the window.<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"2049\" data-end=\"2198\"><strong data-start=\"2049\" data-end=\"2065\">common nouns<\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"2049\" data-end=\"2198\">general names for people, places, things, or ideas that are not capitalized unless they start a sentence (e.g., girl, city, watch)<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"2200\" data-end=\"2365\"><strong data-start=\"2200\" data-end=\"2225\">comparable adjectives<\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"2200\" data-end=\"2365\">comparable adjectives show varying degrees of a quality, using forms like more (comparative) and most (superlative) to express comparison<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"2367\" data-end=\"2525\"><strong data-start=\"2367\" data-end=\"2400\">complement (of a preposition)<\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"2367\" data-end=\"2525\">the noun or pronoun that follows a preposition to complete its meaning (e.g., in the house, under the table, after dinner)<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"2527\" data-end=\"2691\"><strong data-start=\"2527\" data-end=\"2547\">complex sentence<\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"2527\" data-end=\"2691\">a complex sentence contains one independent clause and at least one dependent clause. Example: Because it was raining, we canceled the picnic.<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"2693\" data-end=\"2869\"><strong data-start=\"2693\" data-end=\"2711\">compound nouns<\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"2693\" data-end=\"2869\">nouns formed by combining two or more words into a single unit, written as one word (daydream), hyphenated (dry-cleaning), or with a space (vacuum cleaner)<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"2871\" data-end=\"3070\"><strong data-start=\"2871\" data-end=\"2893\">compound predicate<\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"2871\" data-end=\"3070\">a compound predicate has two or more verbs or verb phrases that share the same subject, connected by a coordinating conjunction. Example: She washed the dishes and dried them.<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"3072\" data-end=\"3304\"><strong data-start=\"3072\" data-end=\"3093\">compound sentence<\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"3072\" data-end=\"3304\">a compound sentence contains two or more independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction, a semicolon, or a conjunctive adverb. Example: The experiment was successful, but the results were unexpected.<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"3306\" data-end=\"3532\"><strong data-start=\"3306\" data-end=\"3335\">compound-complex sentence<\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"3306\" data-end=\"3532\">a compound-complex sentence contains at least two independent clauses and at least one dependent clause. Example: Although she was tired, she finished the project, and she emailed it to her boss.<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"3534\" data-end=\"3616\"><strong data-start=\"3534\" data-end=\"3550\">conjunctions<\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"3534\" data-end=\"3616\">words that connect words, phrases, or clauses within a sentence<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"3618\" data-end=\"3826\"><strong data-start=\"3618\" data-end=\"3647\">coordinating conjunctions<\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"3618\" data-end=\"3826\">conjunctions that join equal elements (e.g., two nouns, phrases, or independent clauses). The most common are remembered by the acronym FANBOYS: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"3828\" data-end=\"4064\"><strong data-start=\"3828\" data-end=\"3856\">correlative conjunctions<\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"3828\" data-end=\"4064\">paired conjunctions (e.g., either&#8230;or, neither&#8230;nor, not only&#8230;but also) that link equal sentence elements, requiring careful attention to subject-verb agreement based on the element closest to the verb<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"4066\" data-end=\"4207\"><strong data-start=\"4066\" data-end=\"4081\">count nouns<\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"4066\" data-end=\"4207\">nouns that can be counted and made plural (e.g., apple, book, fox); they can be used with numbers and articles like a or an<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"4209\" data-end=\"4337\"><strong data-start=\"4209\" data-end=\"4229\">definite article<\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"4209\" data-end=\"4337\">the is the definite article; it refers to a specific noun that is already known to the reader or listener<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"4339\" data-end=\"4577\"><strong data-start=\"4339\" data-end=\"4364\">demonstrative pronoun<\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"4339\" data-end=\"4577\">a pronoun that replaces a noun by pointing to something specific in relation to distance or time (e.g., this, that, these, those), with this and these indicating closeness and that and those indicating distance<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"4579\" data-end=\"4764\"><strong data-start=\"4579\" data-end=\"4599\">dependent clause<\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"4579\" data-end=\"4764\">a dependent clause contains a subject and a verb but does not express a complete thought; it must be attached to an independent clause to form a complete sentence<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"4766\" data-end=\"4927\"><strong data-start=\"4766\" data-end=\"4783\">direct object<\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"4766\" data-end=\"4927\">a direct object is a noun, pronoun, phrase, or clause that receives the action of the verb directly; it answers what? or whom? after the verb<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"4929\" data-end=\"5009\"><strong data-start=\"4929\" data-end=\"4939\">gerund<\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"4929\" data-end=\"5009\">a verb ending in -ing that acts like a noun (e.g., swimming is fun)<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"80\" data-end=\"231\"><strong data-start=\"80\" data-end=\"97\">helping verbs<\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"80\" data-end=\"231\">verbs that come before the main verb to form a verb phrase and express tense, mood, or voice (e.g., have eaten, is going, can ride)<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"233\" data-end=\"475\"><strong data-start=\"233\" data-end=\"255\">indefinite article<\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"233\" data-end=\"475\">a and an are indefinite articles; they refer to a non-specific or general noun. Use <em data-start=\"342\" data-end=\"345\">a<\/em> before words beginning with a consonant sound (e.g., a cat), and <em data-start=\"411\" data-end=\"415\">an<\/em> before words beginning with a vowel sound (e.g., an orange)<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"477\" data-end=\"672\"><strong data-start=\"477\" data-end=\"499\">indefinite pronoun<\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"477\" data-end=\"672\">a pronoun that refers to one or more unspecified people or things (e.g., anyone, each, nobody, one), often used to generalize or indicate unknown quantities or identities<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"674\" data-end=\"828\"><strong data-start=\"674\" data-end=\"696\">independent clause<\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"674\" data-end=\"828\">an independent clause contains a subject and a verb and expresses a complete thought, making it able to stand alone as a sentence<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"830\" data-end=\"975\"><strong data-start=\"830\" data-end=\"844\">infinitive<\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"830\" data-end=\"975\">an infinitive is the base form of a verb usually preceded by <em data-start=\"908\" data-end=\"912\">to<\/em> (e.g., to write) and functions as a noun, adjective, or adverb<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"977\" data-end=\"1079\"><strong data-start=\"977\" data-end=\"999\">intransitive verbs<\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"977\" data-end=\"1079\">action verbs that do not require a direct object (e.g., he sleeps peacefully)<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"1081\" data-end=\"1242\"><strong data-start=\"1081\" data-end=\"1102\">irregular plurals<\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"1081\" data-end=\"1242\">nouns that do not follow standard pluralization rules and instead change form in unique ways (e.g., man \u2192 men, mouse \u2192 mice, deer \u2192 deer)<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"1244\" data-end=\"1444\"><strong data-start=\"1244\" data-end=\"1263\">irregular verbs<\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"1244\" data-end=\"1444\">verbs that do not follow standard patterns when changing tenses. instead of adding -ed for the past tense, they often change form entirely (e.g., go \u2192 went, run \u2192 ran, eat \u2192 ate)<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"1446\" data-end=\"1655\"><strong data-start=\"1446\" data-end=\"1463\">linking verbs<\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"1446\" data-end=\"1655\">verbs that connect the subject to a subject complement, showing a state of being or condition rather than action (e.g., is, seems, becomes); they act like an equal sign (e.g., she is happy)<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"1657\" data-end=\"1853\"><strong data-start=\"1657\" data-end=\"1677\">multi-word verbs<\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"1657\" data-end=\"1853\">verbs made up of two or more words that function together as a single verb and often carry a different meaning than the individual words (e.g., shut up, find out, carry out)<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"1855\" data-end=\"2011\"><strong data-start=\"1855\" data-end=\"1884\">non-comparable adjectives<\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"1855\" data-end=\"2011\">non-comparable adjectives describe absolute or binary states (e.g., dead, true, unique) that generally do not vary in degree<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"2013\" data-end=\"2205\"><strong data-start=\"2013\" data-end=\"2032\">non-count nouns<\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"2013\" data-end=\"2205\">nouns that represent a mass or concept that cannot be counted or made plural (e.g., furniture, advice, happiness); they require quantifiers like some, much, or a piece of<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"2207\" data-end=\"2370\"><strong data-start=\"2207\" data-end=\"2227\">non-finite verbs<\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"2207\" data-end=\"2370\">verb forms that do not show tense and cannot stand alone as the main verb in a sentence. Types include gerunds, participles, and infinitives<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"2372\" data-end=\"2530\"><strong data-start=\"2372\" data-end=\"2380\">noun<\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"2372\" data-end=\"2530\">words that name people, places, things, or ideas, including both general terms (e.g., book, city) and specific ones (e.g., Dr. Nguyen, Puerto Rico)<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"2532\" data-end=\"2723\"><strong data-start=\"2532\" data-end=\"2546\">participle<\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"2532\" data-end=\"2723\">a verb form used as an adjective. present participles end in -ing (e.g., the sleeping baby); past participles often end in -ed, -en, or irregular forms (e.g., the broken toy)<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"2725\" data-end=\"2881\"><strong data-start=\"2725\" data-end=\"2745\">personal pronoun<\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"2725\" data-end=\"2881\">a pronoun that replaces a specific noun referring to a person or thing (e.g., I, she, they) and changes form based on case and number<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"2883\" data-end=\"3023\"><strong data-start=\"2883\" data-end=\"2893\">phrase<\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"2883\" data-end=\"3023\">a phrase is a group of words that acts as a single part of speech and lacks both a subject doing the action and a complete verb<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"3025\" data-end=\"3227\"><strong data-start=\"3025\" data-end=\"3058\">plural nouns: regular plurals<\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"3025\" data-end=\"3227\">nouns that form the plural by following standard rules, usually by adding -s or -es (e.g., cats, foxes, heroes) or changing -y to -ies after a consonant (e.g., skies)<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"3229\" data-end=\"3354\"><strong data-start=\"3229\" data-end=\"3251\">possessive pronoun<\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"3229\" data-end=\"3354\">a pronoun that shows ownership; may function independently (mine, yours) or modify a noun (my, your)<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"3356\" data-end=\"3600\"><strong data-start=\"3356\" data-end=\"3369\">predicate<\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"3356\" data-end=\"3600\">the predicate is the part of a sentence that contains the verb and tells what the subject does, is, or experiences; it includes the verb and any modifiers or objects. Every complete sentence consists of a subject and a predicate<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"3602\" data-end=\"3797\"><strong data-start=\"3602\" data-end=\"3617\">preposition<\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"3602\" data-end=\"3797\">a word that shows the relationship between its complement and another element in the sentence, often indicating direction, time, location, or cause (e.g., in, on, before, under)<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"3799\" data-end=\"3942\"><strong data-start=\"3799\" data-end=\"3810\">pronoun<\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"3799\" data-end=\"3942\">a word that takes the place of a noun and can function as a subject or object in a sentence (e.g., he, they, this, who, everyone)<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"3944\" data-end=\"4130\"><strong data-start=\"3944\" data-end=\"3965\">pronoun agreement<\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"3944\" data-end=\"4130\">the grammatical rule that a pronoun must match its antecedent in number (singular or plural), gender, and person to maintain clarity and correctness in a sentence<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"4132\" data-end=\"4265\"><strong data-start=\"4132\" data-end=\"4148\">proper nouns<\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"4132\" data-end=\"4265\">specific names of people, places, or organizations that are always capitalized (e.g., New York, Google, Elizabeth)<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"4267\" data-end=\"4413\"><strong data-start=\"4267\" data-end=\"4288\">reflexive pronoun<\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"4267\" data-end=\"4413\">a pronoun that refers back to the subject of the sentence and ends in -self or -selves (e.g., myself, herself, themselves)<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"4415\" data-end=\"4602\"><strong data-start=\"4415\" data-end=\"4435\">relative pronoun<\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"4415\" data-end=\"4602\">a pronoun that introduces a dependent clause and relates it to a noun (e.g., who, whom, whose, that, which); used to add information or describe the noun it follows<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"4604\" data-end=\"4998\"><strong data-start=\"4604\" data-end=\"4633\">royal order of adjectives<\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"4604\" data-end=\"4998\">the standard sequence in which multiple adjectives should appear before a noun to maintain clarity and natural flow. When two or more adjectives are used, they typically follow this order: determiner \u2192 observation \u2192 size \u2192 shape \u2192 age \u2192 color \u2192 origin \u2192 material \u2192 qualifier \u2192 noun. For example: \u201cThose beautiful large round old blue Italian glass serving bowls\u201d<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"5000\" data-end=\"5305\"><strong data-start=\"5000\" data-end=\"5026\">royal order of adverbs<\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"5000\" data-end=\"5305\">the typical sequence in which multiple adverbs appear in a sentence\u2014manner, place, frequency, time, and purpose\u2014to maintain clarity and natural flow. Example: She sang (manner) beautifully (place) in the hall (frequency) every week (time) to practice for the recital (purpose).<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"5307\" data-end=\"5494\"><strong data-start=\"5307\" data-end=\"5326\">simple sentence<\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"5307\" data-end=\"5494\">a simple sentence contains one independent clause and no dependent clauses, though it may have a compound subject or predicate. Example: The sun set behind the hills.<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"5496\" data-end=\"5649\"><strong data-start=\"5496\" data-end=\"5507\">subject<\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"5496\" data-end=\"5649\">the subject is the noun, pronoun, phrase, or clause that a sentence is about. Every complete sentence consists of a subject and a predicate<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"5651\" data-end=\"5938\"><strong data-start=\"5651\" data-end=\"5677\">subject-verb agreement<\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"5651\" data-end=\"5938\">the rule that verbs must match their subjects in number and person. Singular subjects take singular verbs (she writes), while plural subjects take plural verbs (they write). Compound subjects joined by <em data-start=\"5882\" data-end=\"5887\">and<\/em> require plural verbs (the cat and dog are outside)<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"5940\" data-end=\"6142\"><strong data-start=\"5940\" data-end=\"5970\">subordinating conjunctions<\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"5940\" data-end=\"6142\">words that connect a dependent clause to an independent clause, showing relationships like time, cause, condition, or contrast (e.g., because, although, since, if, when)<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"6144\" data-end=\"6261\"><strong data-start=\"6144\" data-end=\"6164\">transitive verbs<\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"6144\" data-end=\"6261\">action verbs that require a direct object to complete their meaning (e.g., she wrote a letter)<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"6263\" data-end=\"6496\"><strong data-start=\"6263\" data-end=\"6278\">verb tenses<\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"6263\" data-end=\"6496\">forms of verbs that show when an action happens. The three basic tenses are: present (she works), past (she worked), and future (she will work). In the present tense, third-person singular subjects take an -s ending<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"6498\" data-end=\"6630\"><strong data-start=\"6498\" data-end=\"6512\">verb types<\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"6498\" data-end=\"6630\">categories of verbs based on their function in a sentence, including active, linking, helping, and multi-word forms<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"6632\" data-end=\"6791\"><strong data-start=\"6632\" data-end=\"6648\">verbal nouns<\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"6632\" data-end=\"6791\">nouns derived from verbs that function like regular nouns in a sentence; includes gerunds and other forms like running, jogging, and meeting<\/p>\n<\/div>\n","protected":false},"author":14,"menu_order":1,"template":"","meta":{"_candela_citation":"[]","pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[],"license":[],"part":335,"module-header":"cheat_sheet","content_attributions":[],"internal_book_links":[],"video_content":null,"cc_video_embed_content":{"cc_scripts":"","media_targets":[]},"try_it_collection":null,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/englishcomp1\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/1574"}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/englishcomp1\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/englishcomp1\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/englishcomp1\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/14"}],"version-history":[{"count":12,"href":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/englishcomp1\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/1574\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":3623,"href":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/englishcomp1\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/1574\/revisions\/3623"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/englishcomp1\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/335"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/englishcomp1\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/1574\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/englishcomp1\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=1574"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/englishcomp1\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=1574"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/englishcomp1\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=1574"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/englishcomp1\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=1574"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}