{"id":1548,"date":"2025-04-29T22:03:26","date_gmt":"2025-04-29T22:03:26","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/englishcomp1\/?post_type=chapter&#038;p=1548"},"modified":"2025-07-11T16:35:07","modified_gmt":"2025-07-11T16:35:07","slug":"grammar-essentials-cheat-sheet","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/englishcomp1\/chapter\/grammar-essentials-cheat-sheet\/","title":{"raw":"Grammar Essentials: Cheat Sheet","rendered":"Grammar Essentials: Cheat Sheet"},"content":{"raw":"<h4 style=\"text-align: right;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/course-building.s3.us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/English+Comp\/Cheat+Sheets\/English+Composition+Cheat+Sheet+Module+5.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Download a pdf of this page here.<\/a><\/h4>\r\n<h4 style=\"text-align: right;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/course-building.s3.us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/English+Comp\/Cheat+Sheets\/Spanish+-+English+Composition+Cheat+Sheet+Module+5.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Download the Spanish version here.<\/a><\/h4>\r\n<h2>Essential Concepts<\/h2>\r\n<h3>Punctuation<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"89\" data-end=\"381\"><strong data-start=\"89\" data-end=\"201\">End punctuation marks (periods, question marks, and exclamation points) indicate the sentence type and tone.<\/strong> Use periods for statements, question marks for direct questions, and exclamation points to express strong emotion or emphasis\u2014while avoiding overuse, especially in formal writing. If a question is implied rather than asked directly, it ends with a period (e.g., <em data-start=\"518\" data-end=\"547\">She asked where the bus was<\/em>).<\/li>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"553\" data-end=\"777\"><strong data-start=\"553\" data-end=\"623\">Punctuation clusters\u2014like multiple ending marks\u2014should be avoided.<\/strong> Use only one terminal punctuation mark per sentence. When punctuation meets abbreviations or parentheses, follow conventions for clarity and consistency.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Hyphens join words that function together as a single idea<\/strong>\u2014such as compound adjectives (<em data-start=\"160\" data-end=\"178\">high-speed chase<\/em>), \u201cself\u201d words (<em data-start=\"195\" data-end=\"207\">self-aware<\/em>), or to prevent ambiguity (<em data-start=\"235\" data-end=\"244\">re-sign<\/em> vs. <em data-start=\"249\" data-end=\"257\">resign<\/em>)\u2014but are generally not used with -ly adverbs or familiar word pairs unless clarity requires it (e.g., <em data-start=\"360\" data-end=\"372\">well-known<\/em> before a noun, but <em data-start=\"392\" data-end=\"404\">well known<\/em> after).<\/li>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"1231\" data-end=\"1427\"><strong data-start=\"1231\" data-end=\"1285\">Dashes come in two forms: em dashes and en dashes.<\/strong> Em dashes create emphasis or insert commentary, while en dashes show ranges (e.g., <em data-start=\"1369\" data-end=\"1382\">June\u2013August<\/em>) or relationships (<em data-start=\"1402\" data-end=\"1425\" data-is-only-node=\"\">New York\u2013Boston train<\/em>).<\/li>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"1431\" data-end=\"1665\"><strong data-start=\"1431\" data-end=\"1494\">Parentheses add supplementary information or clarification.<\/strong> The sentence should still make sense without the parentheses. Follow punctuation rules depending on whether the parenthetical statement is a full sentence or part of one.<\/li>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"1669\" data-end=\"1868\"><strong data-start=\"1669\" data-end=\"1755\">Brackets are used to add clarification or indicate changes within quoted material.<\/strong> Use [sic] to highlight errors in a source, and use brackets to insert explanatory terms or names within a quote.<\/li>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"1872\" data-end=\"2091\"><strong data-start=\"1872\" data-end=\"1962\">Ellipses indicate omitted material in a quote but do not replace original punctuation.<\/strong> Use them to shorten quotes while retaining the original meaning, and preserve periods or commas if they occur near the ellipsis.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h3>Apostrophes and Quotation Marks<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"91\" data-end=\"347\"><strong>Apostrophes can be used to show possession.<\/strong> Use apostrophe + <em data-start=\"163\" data-end=\"166\">s<\/em> to indicate ownership (<em data-start=\"190\" data-end=\"211\" data-is-only-node=\"\">the student\u2019s paper<\/em>) and just an apostrophe for plural possessives ending in <em data-start=\"269\" data-end=\"272\">s<\/em> (<em data-start=\"274\" data-end=\"296\">the teachers\u2019 lounge<\/em>). Avoid using apostrophes to make regular plurals. Tip: If you can rephrase the phrase using <em data-start=\"432\" data-end=\"436\">of<\/em> (e.g., <em data-start=\"444\" data-end=\"469\" data-is-only-node=\"\">the book of the teacher<\/em>), then possession is indicated, and an apostrophe is appropriate.<\/li>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"539\" data-end=\"808\"><strong data-start=\"539\" data-end=\"598\">Contractions use apostrophes to replace omitted letters<\/strong>. Common examples include <em data-start=\"624\" data-end=\"631\">don\u2019t<\/em> (do not), <em data-start=\"642\" data-end=\"648\" data-is-only-node=\"\">it\u2019s<\/em> (it is), and <em data-start=\"662\" data-end=\"670\">you\u2019re<\/em> (you are). Be careful not to confuse contractions with possessive pronouns like <em data-start=\"751\" data-end=\"756\">its<\/em>, <em data-start=\"758\" data-end=\"764\">your<\/em>, or <em data-start=\"769\" data-end=\"776\">their<\/em>, which do not take apostrophes.<\/li>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"539\" data-end=\"808\"><strong data-start=\"61\" data-end=\"127\">Use quotation marks for direct quotes, speech, and short works<\/strong>. Enclose exact wording from a source in quotation marks and include a citation. Don\u2019t use quotation marks for paraphrased ideas, but still cite the source. Quotation marks are also used for dialogue, titles of short works (like poems or songs), and occasionally for emphasis\u2014though italics are preferred for emphasis in academic writing.<\/li>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"1045\" data-end=\"1267\"><strong data-start=\"56\" data-end=\"128\">Quotation mark rules include punctuation placement and nested quotes<\/strong>. In American English, periods and commas always go inside quotation marks, while other punctuation marks (like colons and question marks) depend on whether they\u2019re part of the quoted material. Use single quotation marks for a quote within a quote: <em data-start=\"377\" data-end=\"417\" data-is-last-node=\"\" data-is-only-node=\"\">He said, \u201cShe called it \u2018a disaster.\u2019\u201d<\/em>\r\n<article class=\"text-token-text-primary w-full\" dir=\"auto\" data-testid=\"conversation-turn-106\" data-scroll-anchor=\"true\">\r\n<div class=\"text-base my-auto mx-auto py-5 [--thread-content-margin:--spacing(4)] @[37rem]:[--thread-content-margin:--spacing(6)] @[72rem]:[--thread-content-margin:--spacing(16)] px-(--thread-content-margin)\">\r\n<div class=\"[--thread-content-max-width:32rem] @[34rem]:[--thread-content-max-width:40rem] @[64rem]:[--thread-content-max-width:48rem] mx-auto flex max-w-(--thread-content-max-width) flex-1 text-base gap-4 md:gap-5 lg:gap-6 group\/turn-messages focus-visible:outline-hidden\" tabindex=\"-1\">\r\n<div class=\"group\/conversation-turn relative flex w-full min-w-0 flex-col agent-turn\">\r\n<div class=\"relative flex-col gap-1 md:gap-3\">\r\n<div class=\"flex max-w-full flex-col grow\">\r\n<div class=\"min-h-8 text-message relative flex w-full flex-col items-end gap-2 text-start break-words whitespace-normal [.text-message+&amp;]:mt-5\" dir=\"auto\" data-message-author-role=\"assistant\" data-message-id=\"d1032006-0257-4c9b-9477-42ec764fc2f9\" data-message-model-slug=\"gpt-4o\">\r\n<div class=\"flex w-full flex-col gap-1 empty:hidden first:pt-[3px]\">\r\n<div class=\"markdown prose dark:prose-invert w-full break-words dark\"><\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/article><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h3>Commas<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"178\" data-end=\"449\"><strong data-start=\"178\" data-end=\"232\">Use commas to set off transition words and phrases<\/strong>\u2014such as <em data-start=\"241\" data-end=\"250\">however<\/em>, <em data-start=\"252\" data-end=\"263\">therefore<\/em>, and <em data-start=\"269\" data-end=\"283\">nevertheless<\/em>\u2014especially when they appear at the beginning, middle, or end of a sentence. If the transition connects two independent clauses, it must follow a semicolon or period.<\/li>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"453\" data-end=\"775\"><strong data-start=\"453\" data-end=\"535\">Set off nonessential descriptive phrases and introductory elements with commas<\/strong>. If the added detail or introductory phrase can be removed without changing the core meaning of the sentence, it should be enclosed in commas (e.g., \"<em data-start=\"685\" data-end=\"727\">Because it was raining, we stayed inside\"<\/em> or \"<em data-start=\"731\" data-end=\"773\">My sister, who is a musician, loves jazz\"<\/em>).<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong data-start=\"949\" data-end=\"986\">Use commas in dates and locations<\/strong>, separating the day from the year and the city from the state or country (e.g., <em data-start=\"1067\" data-end=\"1101\">July 4, 1968, in Cleveland, Ohio<\/em>).<\/li>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"1107\" data-end=\"1297\"><strong data-start=\"1107\" data-end=\"1168\">Place a comma before a coordinating conjunction (FANBOYS)<\/strong>\u2014<em data-start=\"1169\" data-end=\"1202\">for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so<\/em>\u2014only when it joins two independent clauses (e.g., <em data-start=\"1253\" data-end=\"1295\">I was late, but I still made the meeting<\/em>).<\/li>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"1301\" data-end=\"1485\"><strong data-start=\"1301\" data-end=\"1343\">Use commas to separate items in a list<\/strong>, and consider using the serial (Oxford) comma before the final item to improve clarity, especially in complex or potentially ambiguous lists.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong data-start=\"56\" data-end=\"91\">Avoid incorrect comma placement<\/strong>: Don\u2019t insert commas between a subject and its verb, between compound subjects or verbs, before or after conjunctions (unless joining independent clauses), or directly before a preposition\u2014such placements disrupt sentence flow and clarity.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h3>Semicolons and Colons<\/h3>\r\n<article class=\"text-token-text-primary w-full\" dir=\"auto\" data-testid=\"conversation-turn-116\" data-scroll-anchor=\"false\">\r\n<div class=\"text-base my-auto mx-auto py-5 [--thread-content-margin:--spacing(4)] @[37rem]:[--thread-content-margin:--spacing(6)] @[72rem]:[--thread-content-margin:--spacing(16)] px-(--thread-content-margin)\">\r\n<div class=\"[--thread-content-max-width:32rem] @[34rem]:[--thread-content-max-width:40rem] @[64rem]:[--thread-content-max-width:48rem] mx-auto flex max-w-(--thread-content-max-width) flex-1 text-base gap-4 md:gap-5 lg:gap-6 group\/turn-messages focus-visible:outline-hidden\" tabindex=\"-1\">\r\n<div class=\"group\/conversation-turn relative flex w-full min-w-0 flex-col agent-turn\">\r\n<div class=\"relative flex-col gap-1 md:gap-3\">\r\n<div class=\"flex max-w-full flex-col grow\">\r\n<div class=\"min-h-8 text-message relative flex w-full flex-col items-end gap-2 text-start break-words whitespace-normal [.text-message+&amp;]:mt-5\" dir=\"auto\" data-message-author-role=\"assistant\" data-message-id=\"7a7a1a45-ca89-44f4-994d-08f2b7816f3f\" data-message-model-slug=\"gpt-4o\">\r\n<div class=\"flex w-full flex-col gap-1 empty:hidden first:pt-[3px]\">\r\n<div class=\"markdown prose dark:prose-invert w-full break-words dark\">\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"85\" data-end=\"280\"><strong data-start=\"85\" data-end=\"142\">Use semicolons to connect related independent clauses<\/strong> without a conjunction, or before transitional phrases like <em data-start=\"202\" data-end=\"211\" data-is-only-node=\"\">however<\/em> or <em data-start=\"215\" data-end=\"233\">at the same time<\/em> when what follows is also a complete sentence.<\/li>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"284\" data-end=\"460\"><strong data-start=\"284\" data-end=\"329\">Avoid semicolons before dependent clauses<\/strong>\u2014if the second idea can\u2019t stand alone as a sentence, use a comma instead (or no punctuation if the phrase follows the main clause).<\/li>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"464\" data-end=\"594\"><strong data-start=\"464\" data-end=\"500\">Semicolons clarify complex lists<\/strong>, especially when list items include internal commas (e.g., \u201cS\u00e3o Paulo, Brazil; Kobe, Japan\u201d).<\/li>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"598\" data-end=\"750\"><strong data-start=\"598\" data-end=\"631\">Colons introduce or emphasize<\/strong> what follows, including explanations, summaries, or quotations\u2014as long as the preceding clause is a complete sentence.<\/li>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"754\" data-end=\"919\"><strong data-start=\"754\" data-end=\"789\">Colons can also introduce lists<\/strong>, but only after a full sentence. Avoid using a colon after phrases like \u201csuch as\u201d or \u201cincluding,\u201d or after incomplete statements.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/article>\r\n<h3>Complete Sentences<\/h3>\r\n<article class=\"text-token-text-primary w-full\" dir=\"auto\" data-testid=\"conversation-turn-120\" data-scroll-anchor=\"true\">\r\n<div class=\"text-base my-auto mx-auto py-5 [--thread-content-margin:--spacing(4)] @[37rem]:[--thread-content-margin:--spacing(6)] @[72rem]:[--thread-content-margin:--spacing(16)] px-(--thread-content-margin)\">\r\n<div class=\"[--thread-content-max-width:32rem] @[34rem]:[--thread-content-max-width:40rem] @[64rem]:[--thread-content-max-width:48rem] mx-auto flex max-w-(--thread-content-max-width) flex-1 text-base gap-4 md:gap-5 lg:gap-6 group\/turn-messages focus-visible:outline-hidden\" tabindex=\"-1\">\r\n<div class=\"group\/conversation-turn relative flex w-full min-w-0 flex-col agent-turn\">\r\n<div class=\"relative flex-col gap-1 md:gap-3\">\r\n<div class=\"flex max-w-full flex-col grow\">\r\n<div class=\"min-h-8 text-message relative flex w-full flex-col items-end gap-2 text-start break-words whitespace-normal [.text-message+&amp;]:mt-5\" dir=\"auto\" data-message-author-role=\"assistant\" data-message-id=\"449d1438-6b94-4ebb-a884-9849293a0852\" data-message-model-slug=\"gpt-4o\">\r\n<div class=\"flex w-full flex-col gap-1 empty:hidden first:pt-[3px]\">\r\n<div class=\"markdown prose dark:prose-invert w-full break-words dark\">\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"168\" data-end=\"327\"><strong>A sentence fragment is an incomplete sentence that lacks a subject, a verb, or a complete thought. <\/strong>To be complete, a sentence must meet all three criteria. Some fragments are created by dependent clauses (e.g., starting with \u201cwhich\u201d or \u201cbecause\u201d) that can't stand alone. These should be revised to include an independent clause. Fragments can occur even in long sentences, and short sentences can be complete; length does not determine completeness\u2014grammar and meaning do.<\/li>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"933\" data-end=\"1066\"><strong data-start=\"933\" data-end=\"1001\">Run-on sentences improperly join two or more independent clauses<\/strong> without the necessary punctuation or conjunction. This includes fused sentences (t<span style=\"font-family: 'Public Sans', -apple-system, BlinkMacSystemFont, 'Segoe UI', Roboto, Oxygen-Sans, Ubuntu, Cantarell, 'Helvetica Neue', sans-serif;\">wo sentences joined with no punctuation) and c<\/span><strong style=\"font-family: 'Public Sans', -apple-system, BlinkMacSystemFont, 'Segoe UI', Roboto, Oxygen-Sans, Ubuntu, Cantarell, 'Helvetica Neue', sans-serif;\" data-start=\"1138\" data-end=\"1155\">omma splices (t<\/strong><span style=\"font-family: 'Public Sans', -apple-system, BlinkMacSystemFont, 'Segoe UI', Roboto, Oxygen-Sans, Ubuntu, Cantarell, 'Helvetica Neue', sans-serif;\">wo sentences joined with just a comma).\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong data-start=\"1200\" data-end=\"1235\">To fix a run-on or comma splice<\/strong>, you can:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Use a <strong data-start=\"1256\" data-end=\"1266\">period<\/strong> to create two sentences.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Use a <strong data-start=\"1302\" data-end=\"1315\">semicolon<\/strong> if the ideas are closely related.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Use a <strong data-start=\"1360\" data-end=\"1398\">comma and coordinating conjunction<\/strong> (FANBOYS).<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Use a <strong data-start=\"1420\" data-end=\"1429\">colon<\/strong> when the second clause explains or expands on the first.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong data-start=\"1491\" data-end=\"1515\">Rewrite the sentence<\/strong> to eliminate the issue.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n \t<li data-start=\"1543\" data-end=\"1710\"><strong data-start=\"1543\" data-end=\"1631\">Adverbial conjunctions like \u201chowever\u201d or \u201ctherefore\u201d are not substitutes for FANBOYS<\/strong> and require proper punctuation\u2014typically a semicolon before and a comma after.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/article>\r\n<h2>Glossary<\/h2>\r\n<p data-start=\"75\" data-end=\"296\"><strong data-start=\"75\" data-end=\"91\">brackets [ ]<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"75\" data-end=\"296\">punctuation marks that are used within quoted text to add clarification or indicate an error in the original source (marked with [sic]). They show that the inserted material is not part of the original quotation<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"298\" data-end=\"499\"><strong data-start=\"298\" data-end=\"313\">colon ( : )<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"298\" data-end=\"499\">a punctuation mark that signals that what follows elaborates, explains, summarizes, or lists something introduced before it. It creates a strong pause that links closely related ideas<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"501\" data-end=\"664\"><strong data-start=\"501\" data-end=\"516\">contraction<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"501\" data-end=\"664\">a shortened form of a word or group of words, created by replacing omitted letters with an apostrophe (e.g., don\u2019t for do not, he\u2019ll for he will)<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"666\" data-end=\"914\"><strong data-start=\"666\" data-end=\"689\">descriptive phrases<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"666\" data-end=\"914\">phrases that provide additional, nonessential information about a noun and are typically set off with commas. If the phrase can be removed without altering the core meaning of the sentence, it should be separated by commas<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"916\" data-end=\"1124\"><strong data-start=\"916\" data-end=\"936\">ellipsis ( ... )<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"916\" data-end=\"1124\">punctuation marks that indicate the omission of words in a quotation or a pause in thought. They consist of three spaced periods and retain any original punctuation before or after them<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"1126\" data-end=\"1289\"><strong data-start=\"1126\" data-end=\"1143\">em dash ( \u2014 )<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"1126\" data-end=\"1289\">a punctuation mark used to emphasize or set off information, often replacing commas, parentheses, or colons for a stronger impact or interruption<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"1291\" data-end=\"1448\"><strong data-start=\"1291\" data-end=\"1308\">en dash ( \u2013 )<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"1291\" data-end=\"1448\">a punctuation mark used to represent ranges in time, dates, or numbers, and can also indicate connections such as routes or relationships<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"1450\" data-end=\"1592\"><strong data-start=\"1450\" data-end=\"1469\">end punctuation<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"1450\" data-end=\"1592\">marks used to signal the end of a sentence; the three primary types are the period, question mark, and exclamation point<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"1594\" data-end=\"1714\"><strong data-start=\"1594\" data-end=\"1621\">exclamation point ( ! )<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"1594\" data-end=\"1714\">used to express strong emotion, surprise, or emphasis; typically avoided in formal writing<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"1716\" data-end=\"1887\"><strong data-start=\"1716\" data-end=\"1733\">hyphens ( - )<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"1716\" data-end=\"1887\">punctuation marks that are used to join words or parts of words, typically to clarify meaning, form compound terms, or prevent confusion in multi-word modifiers<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"1889\" data-end=\"2043\"><strong data-start=\"1889\" data-end=\"1908\">parentheses ( )<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"1889\" data-end=\"2043\">punctuation marks that are used in pairs to enclose extra information or explanations that are helpful but not essential to the main sentence<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"2045\" data-end=\"2150\"><strong data-start=\"2045\" data-end=\"2061\">period ( . )<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"2045\" data-end=\"2150\">used to end declarative sentences or statements that are not questions or exclamations<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"2152\" data-end=\"2346\"><strong data-start=\"2152\" data-end=\"2173\">plural possessive<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"2152\" data-end=\"2346\">a plural possessive shows ownership by more than one noun. If the plural noun does not end in s, add \u2019s; if it does end in s, add only an apostrophe (\u2019) after the final s<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"2348\" data-end=\"2545\"><strong data-start=\"2348\" data-end=\"2358\">prefix<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"2348\" data-end=\"2545\">a letter or group of letters added to the beginning of a word to change its meaning; most prefixes do not require hyphenation unless added to a proper noun or needed to avoid ambiguity<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"2547\" data-end=\"2635\"><strong data-start=\"2547\" data-end=\"2570\">question mark ( ? )<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"2547\" data-end=\"2635\">used to end direct questions; not used with indirect questions<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"2637\" data-end=\"2849\"><strong data-start=\"2637\" data-end=\"2662\">quotation marks (\" \")<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"2637\" data-end=\"2849\">punctuation marks that are used to enclose exact words taken from another source, typically for direct quotations in academic writing. They signal that the words inside are not the writer\u2019s own<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"2851\" data-end=\"3010\"><strong data-start=\"2851\" data-end=\"2870\">run-on sentence<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"2851\" data-end=\"3010\">when two or more independent clauses are joined incorrectly, either with no punctuation or only a comma without a coordinating conjunction<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"3012\" data-end=\"3182\"><strong data-start=\"3012\" data-end=\"3028\">scare quotes<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"3012\" data-end=\"3182\">quotation marks that are used around a word or phrase to signal irony, doubt, or that the term is being used in a non-literal, non-standard, or questionable way<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"3184\" data-end=\"3336\"><strong data-start=\"3184\" data-end=\"3203\">semicolon ( ; )<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"3184\" data-end=\"3336\">a punctuation mark that connects two independent clauses that are closely related in meaning, or separates complex items in a list<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"3338\" data-end=\"3512\"><strong data-start=\"3338\" data-end=\"3359\">sentence fragment<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"3338\" data-end=\"3512\">an incomplete sentence that lacks a subject, a verb, or does not express a complete thought. It cannot stand alone as a grammatically correct sentence<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"3514\" data-end=\"3807\"><strong data-start=\"3514\" data-end=\"3545\">serial comma (Oxford comma)<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"3514\" data-end=\"3807\">the comma placed before the final conjunction in a list of three or more items (e.g., \u201capples, oranges, and bananas\u201d). While required by MLA, APA, and Chicago style guides, AP style omits it. Use of the serial comma can help prevent ambiguity in complex lists<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"3809\" data-end=\"3915\"><strong data-start=\"3809\" data-end=\"3841\">single quotation marks (\u2018 \u2019)<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"3809\" data-end=\"3915\">punctuation marks that are used to indicate a quotation within another quotation<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"3917\" data-end=\"4113\"><strong data-start=\"3917\" data-end=\"3940\">singular possessive<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"3917\" data-end=\"4113\">a singular possessive shows ownership by a single noun and is formed by adding an apostrophe followed by s (\u2019s) to the end of the word, even if the word already ends in s<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"4115\" data-end=\"4309\"><strong data-start=\"4115\" data-end=\"4125\">suffix<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"4115\" data-end=\"4309\">a letter or group of letters added to the end of a word to form a new word or alter its function; hyphens are generally unnecessary unless needed to clarify pronunciation or meaning<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"4311\" data-end=\"4494\"><strong data-start=\"4311\" data-end=\"4331\">transition words<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"4311\" data-end=\"4494\">words or phrases (e.g., however, therefore, in addition) that connect ideas and show relationships between them, such as cause and effect, contrast, or sequence<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"4496\" data-end=\"4660\"><strong data-start=\"4496\" data-end=\"4510\">word blend<\/strong><\/p>\r\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"4496\" data-end=\"4660\">a compound formed by merging parts of two or more words into one new term, often used without hyphens when the meaning is clear and widely accepted<\/p>\r\n<p data-start=\"280\" data-end=\"290\"><\/p>","rendered":"<h4 style=\"text-align: right;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/course-building.s3.us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/English+Comp\/Cheat+Sheets\/English+Composition+Cheat+Sheet+Module+5.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Download a pdf of this page here.<\/a><\/h4>\n<h4 style=\"text-align: right;\"><a href=\"https:\/\/course-building.s3.us-west-2.amazonaws.com\/English+Comp\/Cheat+Sheets\/Spanish+-+English+Composition+Cheat+Sheet+Module+5.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Download the Spanish version here.<\/a><\/h4>\n<h2>Essential Concepts<\/h2>\n<h3>Punctuation<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li data-start=\"89\" data-end=\"381\"><strong data-start=\"89\" data-end=\"201\">End punctuation marks (periods, question marks, and exclamation points) indicate the sentence type and tone.<\/strong> Use periods for statements, question marks for direct questions, and exclamation points to express strong emotion or emphasis\u2014while avoiding overuse, especially in formal writing. If a question is implied rather than asked directly, it ends with a period (e.g., <em data-start=\"518\" data-end=\"547\">She asked where the bus was<\/em>).<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"553\" data-end=\"777\"><strong data-start=\"553\" data-end=\"623\">Punctuation clusters\u2014like multiple ending marks\u2014should be avoided.<\/strong> Use only one terminal punctuation mark per sentence. When punctuation meets abbreviations or parentheses, follow conventions for clarity and consistency.<\/li>\n<li><strong>Hyphens join words that function together as a single idea<\/strong>\u2014such as compound adjectives (<em data-start=\"160\" data-end=\"178\">high-speed chase<\/em>), \u201cself\u201d words (<em data-start=\"195\" data-end=\"207\">self-aware<\/em>), or to prevent ambiguity (<em data-start=\"235\" data-end=\"244\">re-sign<\/em> vs. <em data-start=\"249\" data-end=\"257\">resign<\/em>)\u2014but are generally not used with -ly adverbs or familiar word pairs unless clarity requires it (e.g., <em data-start=\"360\" data-end=\"372\">well-known<\/em> before a noun, but <em data-start=\"392\" data-end=\"404\">well known<\/em> after).<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"1231\" data-end=\"1427\"><strong data-start=\"1231\" data-end=\"1285\">Dashes come in two forms: em dashes and en dashes.<\/strong> Em dashes create emphasis or insert commentary, while en dashes show ranges (e.g., <em data-start=\"1369\" data-end=\"1382\">June\u2013August<\/em>) or relationships (<em data-start=\"1402\" data-end=\"1425\" data-is-only-node=\"\">New York\u2013Boston train<\/em>).<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"1431\" data-end=\"1665\"><strong data-start=\"1431\" data-end=\"1494\">Parentheses add supplementary information or clarification.<\/strong> The sentence should still make sense without the parentheses. Follow punctuation rules depending on whether the parenthetical statement is a full sentence or part of one.<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"1669\" data-end=\"1868\"><strong data-start=\"1669\" data-end=\"1755\">Brackets are used to add clarification or indicate changes within quoted material.<\/strong> Use [sic] to highlight errors in a source, and use brackets to insert explanatory terms or names within a quote.<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"1872\" data-end=\"2091\"><strong data-start=\"1872\" data-end=\"1962\">Ellipses indicate omitted material in a quote but do not replace original punctuation.<\/strong> Use them to shorten quotes while retaining the original meaning, and preserve periods or commas if they occur near the ellipsis.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h3>Apostrophes and Quotation Marks<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li data-start=\"91\" data-end=\"347\"><strong>Apostrophes can be used to show possession.<\/strong> Use apostrophe + <em data-start=\"163\" data-end=\"166\">s<\/em> to indicate ownership (<em data-start=\"190\" data-end=\"211\" data-is-only-node=\"\">the student\u2019s paper<\/em>) and just an apostrophe for plural possessives ending in <em data-start=\"269\" data-end=\"272\">s<\/em> (<em data-start=\"274\" data-end=\"296\">the teachers\u2019 lounge<\/em>). Avoid using apostrophes to make regular plurals. Tip: If you can rephrase the phrase using <em data-start=\"432\" data-end=\"436\">of<\/em> (e.g., <em data-start=\"444\" data-end=\"469\" data-is-only-node=\"\">the book of the teacher<\/em>), then possession is indicated, and an apostrophe is appropriate.<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"539\" data-end=\"808\"><strong data-start=\"539\" data-end=\"598\">Contractions use apostrophes to replace omitted letters<\/strong>. Common examples include <em data-start=\"624\" data-end=\"631\">don\u2019t<\/em> (do not), <em data-start=\"642\" data-end=\"648\" data-is-only-node=\"\">it\u2019s<\/em> (it is), and <em data-start=\"662\" data-end=\"670\">you\u2019re<\/em> (you are). Be careful not to confuse contractions with possessive pronouns like <em data-start=\"751\" data-end=\"756\">its<\/em>, <em data-start=\"758\" data-end=\"764\">your<\/em>, or <em data-start=\"769\" data-end=\"776\">their<\/em>, which do not take apostrophes.<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"539\" data-end=\"808\"><strong data-start=\"61\" data-end=\"127\">Use quotation marks for direct quotes, speech, and short works<\/strong>. Enclose exact wording from a source in quotation marks and include a citation. Don\u2019t use quotation marks for paraphrased ideas, but still cite the source. Quotation marks are also used for dialogue, titles of short works (like poems or songs), and occasionally for emphasis\u2014though italics are preferred for emphasis in academic writing.<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"1045\" data-end=\"1267\"><strong data-start=\"56\" data-end=\"128\">Quotation mark rules include punctuation placement and nested quotes<\/strong>. In American English, periods and commas always go inside quotation marks, while other punctuation marks (like colons and question marks) depend on whether they\u2019re part of the quoted material. Use single quotation marks for a quote within a quote: <em data-start=\"377\" data-end=\"417\" data-is-last-node=\"\" data-is-only-node=\"\">He said, \u201cShe called it \u2018a disaster.\u2019\u201d<\/em><br \/>\n<article class=\"text-token-text-primary w-full\" dir=\"auto\" data-testid=\"conversation-turn-106\" data-scroll-anchor=\"true\">\n<div class=\"text-base my-auto mx-auto py-5 [--thread-content-margin:--spacing(4)] @[37rem]:[--thread-content-margin:--spacing(6)] @[72rem]:[--thread-content-margin:--spacing(16)] px-(--thread-content-margin)\">\n<div class=\"[--thread-content-max-width:32rem] @[34rem]:[--thread-content-max-width:40rem] @[64rem]:[--thread-content-max-width:48rem] mx-auto flex max-w-(--thread-content-max-width) flex-1 text-base gap-4 md:gap-5 lg:gap-6 group\/turn-messages focus-visible:outline-hidden\" tabindex=\"-1\">\n<div class=\"group\/conversation-turn relative flex w-full min-w-0 flex-col agent-turn\">\n<div class=\"relative flex-col gap-1 md:gap-3\">\n<div class=\"flex max-w-full flex-col grow\">\n<div class=\"min-h-8 text-message relative flex w-full flex-col items-end gap-2 text-start break-words whitespace-normal [.text-message+&amp;]:mt-5\" dir=\"auto\" data-message-author-role=\"assistant\" data-message-id=\"d1032006-0257-4c9b-9477-42ec764fc2f9\" data-message-model-slug=\"gpt-4o\">\n<div class=\"flex w-full flex-col gap-1 empty:hidden first:pt-[3px]\">\n<div class=\"markdown prose dark:prose-invert w-full break-words dark\"><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/article>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h3>Commas<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li data-start=\"178\" data-end=\"449\"><strong data-start=\"178\" data-end=\"232\">Use commas to set off transition words and phrases<\/strong>\u2014such as <em data-start=\"241\" data-end=\"250\">however<\/em>, <em data-start=\"252\" data-end=\"263\">therefore<\/em>, and <em data-start=\"269\" data-end=\"283\">nevertheless<\/em>\u2014especially when they appear at the beginning, middle, or end of a sentence. If the transition connects two independent clauses, it must follow a semicolon or period.<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"453\" data-end=\"775\"><strong data-start=\"453\" data-end=\"535\">Set off nonessential descriptive phrases and introductory elements with commas<\/strong>. If the added detail or introductory phrase can be removed without changing the core meaning of the sentence, it should be enclosed in commas (e.g., &#8220;<em data-start=\"685\" data-end=\"727\">Because it was raining, we stayed inside&#8221;<\/em> or &#8220;<em data-start=\"731\" data-end=\"773\">My sister, who is a musician, loves jazz&#8221;<\/em>).<\/li>\n<li><strong data-start=\"949\" data-end=\"986\">Use commas in dates and locations<\/strong>, separating the day from the year and the city from the state or country (e.g., <em data-start=\"1067\" data-end=\"1101\">July 4, 1968, in Cleveland, Ohio<\/em>).<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"1107\" data-end=\"1297\"><strong data-start=\"1107\" data-end=\"1168\">Place a comma before a coordinating conjunction (FANBOYS)<\/strong>\u2014<em data-start=\"1169\" data-end=\"1202\">for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so<\/em>\u2014only when it joins two independent clauses (e.g., <em data-start=\"1253\" data-end=\"1295\">I was late, but I still made the meeting<\/em>).<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"1301\" data-end=\"1485\"><strong data-start=\"1301\" data-end=\"1343\">Use commas to separate items in a list<\/strong>, and consider using the serial (Oxford) comma before the final item to improve clarity, especially in complex or potentially ambiguous lists.<\/li>\n<li><strong data-start=\"56\" data-end=\"91\">Avoid incorrect comma placement<\/strong>: Don\u2019t insert commas between a subject and its verb, between compound subjects or verbs, before or after conjunctions (unless joining independent clauses), or directly before a preposition\u2014such placements disrupt sentence flow and clarity.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h3>Semicolons and Colons<\/h3>\n<article class=\"text-token-text-primary w-full\" dir=\"auto\" data-testid=\"conversation-turn-116\" data-scroll-anchor=\"false\">\n<div class=\"text-base my-auto mx-auto py-5 [--thread-content-margin:--spacing(4)] @[37rem]:[--thread-content-margin:--spacing(6)] @[72rem]:[--thread-content-margin:--spacing(16)] px-(--thread-content-margin)\">\n<div class=\"[--thread-content-max-width:32rem] @[34rem]:[--thread-content-max-width:40rem] @[64rem]:[--thread-content-max-width:48rem] mx-auto flex max-w-(--thread-content-max-width) flex-1 text-base gap-4 md:gap-5 lg:gap-6 group\/turn-messages focus-visible:outline-hidden\" tabindex=\"-1\">\n<div class=\"group\/conversation-turn relative flex w-full min-w-0 flex-col agent-turn\">\n<div class=\"relative flex-col gap-1 md:gap-3\">\n<div class=\"flex max-w-full flex-col grow\">\n<div class=\"min-h-8 text-message relative flex w-full flex-col items-end gap-2 text-start break-words whitespace-normal [.text-message+&amp;]:mt-5\" dir=\"auto\" data-message-author-role=\"assistant\" data-message-id=\"7a7a1a45-ca89-44f4-994d-08f2b7816f3f\" data-message-model-slug=\"gpt-4o\">\n<div class=\"flex w-full flex-col gap-1 empty:hidden first:pt-[3px]\">\n<div class=\"markdown prose dark:prose-invert w-full break-words dark\">\n<ul>\n<li data-start=\"85\" data-end=\"280\"><strong data-start=\"85\" data-end=\"142\">Use semicolons to connect related independent clauses<\/strong> without a conjunction, or before transitional phrases like <em data-start=\"202\" data-end=\"211\" data-is-only-node=\"\">however<\/em> or <em data-start=\"215\" data-end=\"233\">at the same time<\/em> when what follows is also a complete sentence.<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"284\" data-end=\"460\"><strong data-start=\"284\" data-end=\"329\">Avoid semicolons before dependent clauses<\/strong>\u2014if the second idea can\u2019t stand alone as a sentence, use a comma instead (or no punctuation if the phrase follows the main clause).<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"464\" data-end=\"594\"><strong data-start=\"464\" data-end=\"500\">Semicolons clarify complex lists<\/strong>, especially when list items include internal commas (e.g., \u201cS\u00e3o Paulo, Brazil; Kobe, Japan\u201d).<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"598\" data-end=\"750\"><strong data-start=\"598\" data-end=\"631\">Colons introduce or emphasize<\/strong> what follows, including explanations, summaries, or quotations\u2014as long as the preceding clause is a complete sentence.<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"754\" data-end=\"919\"><strong data-start=\"754\" data-end=\"789\">Colons can also introduce lists<\/strong>, but only after a full sentence. Avoid using a colon after phrases like \u201csuch as\u201d or \u201cincluding,\u201d or after incomplete statements.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/article>\n<h3>Complete Sentences<\/h3>\n<article class=\"text-token-text-primary w-full\" dir=\"auto\" data-testid=\"conversation-turn-120\" data-scroll-anchor=\"true\">\n<div class=\"text-base my-auto mx-auto py-5 [--thread-content-margin:--spacing(4)] @[37rem]:[--thread-content-margin:--spacing(6)] @[72rem]:[--thread-content-margin:--spacing(16)] px-(--thread-content-margin)\">\n<div class=\"[--thread-content-max-width:32rem] @[34rem]:[--thread-content-max-width:40rem] @[64rem]:[--thread-content-max-width:48rem] mx-auto flex max-w-(--thread-content-max-width) flex-1 text-base gap-4 md:gap-5 lg:gap-6 group\/turn-messages focus-visible:outline-hidden\" tabindex=\"-1\">\n<div class=\"group\/conversation-turn relative flex w-full min-w-0 flex-col agent-turn\">\n<div class=\"relative flex-col gap-1 md:gap-3\">\n<div class=\"flex max-w-full flex-col grow\">\n<div class=\"min-h-8 text-message relative flex w-full flex-col items-end gap-2 text-start break-words whitespace-normal [.text-message+&amp;]:mt-5\" dir=\"auto\" data-message-author-role=\"assistant\" data-message-id=\"449d1438-6b94-4ebb-a884-9849293a0852\" data-message-model-slug=\"gpt-4o\">\n<div class=\"flex w-full flex-col gap-1 empty:hidden first:pt-[3px]\">\n<div class=\"markdown prose dark:prose-invert w-full break-words dark\">\n<ul>\n<li data-start=\"168\" data-end=\"327\"><strong>A sentence fragment is an incomplete sentence that lacks a subject, a verb, or a complete thought. <\/strong>To be complete, a sentence must meet all three criteria. Some fragments are created by dependent clauses (e.g., starting with \u201cwhich\u201d or \u201cbecause\u201d) that can&#8217;t stand alone. These should be revised to include an independent clause. Fragments can occur even in long sentences, and short sentences can be complete; length does not determine completeness\u2014grammar and meaning do.<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"933\" data-end=\"1066\"><strong data-start=\"933\" data-end=\"1001\">Run-on sentences improperly join two or more independent clauses<\/strong> without the necessary punctuation or conjunction. This includes fused sentences (t<span style=\"font-family: 'Public Sans', -apple-system, BlinkMacSystemFont, 'Segoe UI', Roboto, Oxygen-Sans, Ubuntu, Cantarell, 'Helvetica Neue', sans-serif;\">wo sentences joined with no punctuation) and c<\/span><strong style=\"font-family: 'Public Sans', -apple-system, BlinkMacSystemFont, 'Segoe UI', Roboto, Oxygen-Sans, Ubuntu, Cantarell, 'Helvetica Neue', sans-serif;\" data-start=\"1138\" data-end=\"1155\">omma splices (t<\/strong><span style=\"font-family: 'Public Sans', -apple-system, BlinkMacSystemFont, 'Segoe UI', Roboto, Oxygen-Sans, Ubuntu, Cantarell, 'Helvetica Neue', sans-serif;\">wo sentences joined with just a comma).\u00a0<\/span><\/li>\n<li><strong data-start=\"1200\" data-end=\"1235\">To fix a run-on or comma splice<\/strong>, you can:\n<ul>\n<li>Use a <strong data-start=\"1256\" data-end=\"1266\">period<\/strong> to create two sentences.<\/li>\n<li>Use a <strong data-start=\"1302\" data-end=\"1315\">semicolon<\/strong> if the ideas are closely related.<\/li>\n<li>Use a <strong data-start=\"1360\" data-end=\"1398\">comma and coordinating conjunction<\/strong> (FANBOYS).<\/li>\n<li>Use a <strong data-start=\"1420\" data-end=\"1429\">colon<\/strong> when the second clause explains or expands on the first.<\/li>\n<li><strong data-start=\"1491\" data-end=\"1515\">Rewrite the sentence<\/strong> to eliminate the issue.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li data-start=\"1543\" data-end=\"1710\"><strong data-start=\"1543\" data-end=\"1631\">Adverbial conjunctions like \u201chowever\u201d or \u201ctherefore\u201d are not substitutes for FANBOYS<\/strong> and require proper punctuation\u2014typically a semicolon before and a comma after.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/article>\n<h2>Glossary<\/h2>\n<p data-start=\"75\" data-end=\"296\"><strong data-start=\"75\" data-end=\"91\">brackets [ ]<\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"75\" data-end=\"296\">punctuation marks that are used within quoted text to add clarification or indicate an error in the original source (marked with [sic]). They show that the inserted material is not part of the original quotation<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"298\" data-end=\"499\"><strong data-start=\"298\" data-end=\"313\">colon ( : )<\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"298\" data-end=\"499\">a punctuation mark that signals that what follows elaborates, explains, summarizes, or lists something introduced before it. It creates a strong pause that links closely related ideas<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"501\" data-end=\"664\"><strong data-start=\"501\" data-end=\"516\">contraction<\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"501\" data-end=\"664\">a shortened form of a word or group of words, created by replacing omitted letters with an apostrophe (e.g., don\u2019t for do not, he\u2019ll for he will)<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"666\" data-end=\"914\"><strong data-start=\"666\" data-end=\"689\">descriptive phrases<\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"666\" data-end=\"914\">phrases that provide additional, nonessential information about a noun and are typically set off with commas. If the phrase can be removed without altering the core meaning of the sentence, it should be separated by commas<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"916\" data-end=\"1124\"><strong data-start=\"916\" data-end=\"936\">ellipsis ( &#8230; )<\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"916\" data-end=\"1124\">punctuation marks that indicate the omission of words in a quotation or a pause in thought. They consist of three spaced periods and retain any original punctuation before or after them<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"1126\" data-end=\"1289\"><strong data-start=\"1126\" data-end=\"1143\">em dash ( \u2014 )<\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"1126\" data-end=\"1289\">a punctuation mark used to emphasize or set off information, often replacing commas, parentheses, or colons for a stronger impact or interruption<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"1291\" data-end=\"1448\"><strong data-start=\"1291\" data-end=\"1308\">en dash ( \u2013 )<\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"1291\" data-end=\"1448\">a punctuation mark used to represent ranges in time, dates, or numbers, and can also indicate connections such as routes or relationships<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"1450\" data-end=\"1592\"><strong data-start=\"1450\" data-end=\"1469\">end punctuation<\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"1450\" data-end=\"1592\">marks used to signal the end of a sentence; the three primary types are the period, question mark, and exclamation point<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"1594\" data-end=\"1714\"><strong data-start=\"1594\" data-end=\"1621\">exclamation point ( ! )<\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"1594\" data-end=\"1714\">used to express strong emotion, surprise, or emphasis; typically avoided in formal writing<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"1716\" data-end=\"1887\"><strong data-start=\"1716\" data-end=\"1733\">hyphens ( &#8211; )<\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"1716\" data-end=\"1887\">punctuation marks that are used to join words or parts of words, typically to clarify meaning, form compound terms, or prevent confusion in multi-word modifiers<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"1889\" data-end=\"2043\"><strong data-start=\"1889\" data-end=\"1908\">parentheses ( )<\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"1889\" data-end=\"2043\">punctuation marks that are used in pairs to enclose extra information or explanations that are helpful but not essential to the main sentence<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"2045\" data-end=\"2150\"><strong data-start=\"2045\" data-end=\"2061\">period ( . )<\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"2045\" data-end=\"2150\">used to end declarative sentences or statements that are not questions or exclamations<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"2152\" data-end=\"2346\"><strong data-start=\"2152\" data-end=\"2173\">plural possessive<\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"2152\" data-end=\"2346\">a plural possessive shows ownership by more than one noun. If the plural noun does not end in s, add \u2019s; if it does end in s, add only an apostrophe (\u2019) after the final s<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"2348\" data-end=\"2545\"><strong data-start=\"2348\" data-end=\"2358\">prefix<\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"2348\" data-end=\"2545\">a letter or group of letters added to the beginning of a word to change its meaning; most prefixes do not require hyphenation unless added to a proper noun or needed to avoid ambiguity<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"2547\" data-end=\"2635\"><strong data-start=\"2547\" data-end=\"2570\">question mark ( ? )<\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"2547\" data-end=\"2635\">used to end direct questions; not used with indirect questions<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"2637\" data-end=\"2849\"><strong data-start=\"2637\" data-end=\"2662\">quotation marks (&#8221; &#8220;)<\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"2637\" data-end=\"2849\">punctuation marks that are used to enclose exact words taken from another source, typically for direct quotations in academic writing. They signal that the words inside are not the writer\u2019s own<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"2851\" data-end=\"3010\"><strong data-start=\"2851\" data-end=\"2870\">run-on sentence<\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"2851\" data-end=\"3010\">when two or more independent clauses are joined incorrectly, either with no punctuation or only a comma without a coordinating conjunction<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"3012\" data-end=\"3182\"><strong data-start=\"3012\" data-end=\"3028\">scare quotes<\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"3012\" data-end=\"3182\">quotation marks that are used around a word or phrase to signal irony, doubt, or that the term is being used in a non-literal, non-standard, or questionable way<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"3184\" data-end=\"3336\"><strong data-start=\"3184\" data-end=\"3203\">semicolon ( ; )<\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"3184\" data-end=\"3336\">a punctuation mark that connects two independent clauses that are closely related in meaning, or separates complex items in a list<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"3338\" data-end=\"3512\"><strong data-start=\"3338\" data-end=\"3359\">sentence fragment<\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"3338\" data-end=\"3512\">an incomplete sentence that lacks a subject, a verb, or does not express a complete thought. It cannot stand alone as a grammatically correct sentence<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"3514\" data-end=\"3807\"><strong data-start=\"3514\" data-end=\"3545\">serial comma (Oxford comma)<\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"3514\" data-end=\"3807\">the comma placed before the final conjunction in a list of three or more items (e.g., \u201capples, oranges, and bananas\u201d). While required by MLA, APA, and Chicago style guides, AP style omits it. Use of the serial comma can help prevent ambiguity in complex lists<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"3809\" data-end=\"3915\"><strong data-start=\"3809\" data-end=\"3841\">single quotation marks (\u2018 \u2019)<\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"3809\" data-end=\"3915\">punctuation marks that are used to indicate a quotation within another quotation<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"3917\" data-end=\"4113\"><strong data-start=\"3917\" data-end=\"3940\">singular possessive<\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"3917\" data-end=\"4113\">a singular possessive shows ownership by a single noun and is formed by adding an apostrophe followed by s (\u2019s) to the end of the word, even if the word already ends in s<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"4115\" data-end=\"4309\"><strong data-start=\"4115\" data-end=\"4125\">suffix<\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"4115\" data-end=\"4309\">a letter or group of letters added to the end of a word to form a new word or alter its function; hyphens are generally unnecessary unless needed to clarify pronunciation or meaning<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"4311\" data-end=\"4494\"><strong data-start=\"4311\" data-end=\"4331\">transition words<\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"4311\" data-end=\"4494\">words or phrases (e.g., however, therefore, in addition) that connect ideas and show relationships between them, such as cause and effect, contrast, or sequence<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"4496\" data-end=\"4660\"><strong data-start=\"4496\" data-end=\"4510\">word blend<\/strong><\/p>\n<p style=\"padding-left: 40px;\" data-start=\"4496\" data-end=\"4660\">a compound formed by merging parts of two or more words into one new term, often used without hyphens when the meaning is clear and widely accepted<\/p>\n<p data-start=\"280\" data-end=\"290\">\n","protected":false},"author":14,"menu_order":1,"template":"","meta":{"_candela_citation":"[]","pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[],"license":[],"part":180,"module-header":"cheat_sheet","content_attributions":[],"internal_book_links":[],"video_content":null,"cc_video_embed_content":{"cc_scripts":"","media_targets":[]},"try_it_collection":null,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/englishcomp1\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/1548"}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/englishcomp1\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/englishcomp1\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/englishcomp1\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/14"}],"version-history":[{"count":10,"href":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/englishcomp1\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/1548\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":3186,"href":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/englishcomp1\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/1548\/revisions\/3186"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/englishcomp1\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/180"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/englishcomp1\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/1548\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/englishcomp1\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=1548"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/englishcomp1\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=1548"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/englishcomp1\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=1548"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/content.one.lumenlearning.com\/englishcomp1\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=1548"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}